tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-71017366858928233722024-03-13T20:05:14.185+08:00BIOLOGY FORM 6Discover the wonder of the world through BIOLOGY!!!Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.comBlogger56125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-63287348779250558692015-05-17T07:28:00.001+08:002015-05-23T00:32:54.446+08:00Sexual Reproduction in Humans<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>Male Reproductive System consists of:</strong> </span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NJOA42R5DVg/VVfVI6jum2I/AAAAAAAAAjA/i6Hfr_R2Zow/s1600/testis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="216" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NJOA42R5DVg/VVfVI6jum2I/AAAAAAAAAjA/i6Hfr_R2Zow/s320/testis.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-special-format: "numbullet3,1";">1.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>Testes</strong>:</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - <span style="color: red;">produce sperm</span>
+ hormones </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - under the influence of pituitary </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: orange;">gonadotrophins</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">, <span style="color: lime;">FSH</span> +<span style="color: magenta;">LH</span></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">- contains
<span style="color: red;">scrotum</span> </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - kept <span style="color: blue;">2 °C </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; font-weight: bold; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;"><</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;">normal</span> body temperature </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - <span style="color: lime;">optimal </span>for sperm production
(spermatogenesis).</span><br />
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<span style="mso-special-format: "numbullet3,1";">2. <strong>D</strong></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>ucts</strong>:</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - </span><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">vasa</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">efferentia</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> + <span style="color: purple;">vas deferens</span> </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> -
transport sperm to urethra </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">3. <strong>Glands</strong>:</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - <span style="color: red;">prostate gland</span>, <span style="color: #274e13;">Cowper’s gland</span>,
<span style="color: magenta;">seminal vesicles</span> </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - contribute fluid to semen.</span></div>
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<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="mso-special-format: "numbullet3,1";">4. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>Sperm</strong> (in seminal
fluid) </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - discharged from body thru <span style="color: orange;">penis</span> ( </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">intromittent</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> organ). </span></div>
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<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="mso-special-format: "numbullet3,1";">5. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>Each testis</strong>:</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - consists
of about a thousand </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: red;">seminiferous</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: red;"> tubules.</span> </span></div>
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<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="mso-special-format: "numbullet3,1";">6. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>Each tubule</strong>:</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - lined
by <span style="color: blue;">germinal epithelium</span> </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - which divides to give rise to sperm</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - </span><u style="text-underline: single;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">+</span></u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> two months.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-yRgsXEGCFkQ/VVhV-WfALnI/AAAAAAAAAjQ/0nxk4jgAdeI/s1600/semiferous%2Btubule.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-yRgsXEGCFkQ/VVhV-WfALnI/AAAAAAAAAjQ/0nxk4jgAdeI/s320/semiferous%2Btubule.jpg" width="292" /></a><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mauAo4UW9Bg/VVhWEUfq-DI/AAAAAAAAAjY/flb8rXPv5S8/s1600/spermatogenesis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mauAo4UW9Bg/VVhWEUfq-DI/AAAAAAAAAjY/flb8rXPv5S8/s320/spermatogenesis.jpg" width="272" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">1. <span style="color: #e69138;">Interstitial cells</span>:</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">between </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">seminiferous</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> tubules </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - contain </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">Leydig</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> cells </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - produce testosterone </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - influence of LH (in pituitary gland).</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">2. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: red;">Testosterone</span>:</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> -
stimulates development + maintenance of male secondary sexual
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> characteristics + </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">accessory sex organs.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">3.<span style="color: #38761d;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #38761d;">Spermatogenesis</span>:</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> -
starts at puberty </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - when FSH stimulates series of cell divisions </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - of germinal
epithelium </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - of </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">seminiferous</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> tubules. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">4. </span><span style="color: #0b5394; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">Spermatozoan</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #0b5394;"> cell</span>:</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - cytoplasm
disappeared during development. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bOKzzECoBXA/VVhWHCOAa_I/AAAAAAAAAjg/xXqfOraiads/s1600/sperm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="222" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bOKzzECoBXA/VVhWHCOAa_I/AAAAAAAAAjg/xXqfOraiads/s320/sperm.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
</div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">5. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Acrosome</span>:</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - large </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">lysosome</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - enzymes to digest
outer membranes of the egg (female gamete)</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">6. <span style="color: magenta;">Mitochondria</span> - provide energy
for </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">locomotional</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">flagella</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> movement.</span></div>
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><strong>Human female
reproductive system consists of:</strong> </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Sg8fQfjDRpE/VVhtTW2Tj5I/AAAAAAAAAj4/kCrxkQgqpMs/s1600/female.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Sg8fQfjDRpE/VVhtTW2Tj5I/AAAAAAAAAj4/kCrxkQgqpMs/s320/female.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">1. <span style="color: red;">P</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: red;">air of
ovaries</span>:</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - which produce ova </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - carried by Fallopian tubes (</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">oviductus</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">) </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - to uterus. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">2. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;">cervix</span> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">-
muscular ring at outer end of uterus.</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">3. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: magenta;">vagina</span> – opening to
outside of body.</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-88uvXv3nYbk/VVhs_SLP7WI/AAAAAAAAAjw/N7ehMtC8I_g/s1600/oogenesis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="311" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-88uvXv3nYbk/VVhs_SLP7WI/AAAAAAAAAjw/N7ehMtC8I_g/s320/oogenesis.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="mso-special-format: "numbullet3,1";">1. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">At birth:</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - ovaries
contain about <span style="color: red;">two million</span> follicles </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">which
started to divide by <span style="color: blue;">meiosis</span>, </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">but
stopped at <span style="color: magenta;">prophase I</span> (primary </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">oocytes</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">). </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">subsequent
development at <strong>monthly intervals</strong> (menstrual cycle).</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">2. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: blue;">Oogenesis</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> is regulated by the
pituitary hormones <span style="color: red;">FSH <span style="color: black;">+</span> LH</span>. </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">3. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: orange;">Ovulation <span style="color: black;">+</span></span><span style="color: #a64d79;">
development</span> of secondary sexual characteristics </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> + uterine changes in preparation for <span style="color: red;"><strong>implantatio</strong>n</span> of a </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">fertilised</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> egg </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - controlled by the ovarian hormones <span style="color: black;">(</span></span><span style="color: orange;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">oestrogen</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> + <span style="color: orange;">progesterone</span>).</span></span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">4. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #cc0000;">Fertilisation:</span></span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> -</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> occurs in the
<span style="color: #3d85c6;">Fallopian tubes</span> </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - and the zygote is transported to the <span style="color: red;">uterus</span> </span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"> - by the action of
<span style="color: #f1c232;">cilia lining</span>.</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span> </div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">5. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; language: en-US; mso-ascii-font-family: "Comic Sans MS"; mso-bidi-font-family: +mn-cs; mso-color-index: 1; mso-fareast-font-family: +mn-ea; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">Development of the
zygote + embryo is <span style="color: magenta;">viviparous</span></span></div>
</span><br />
<div style="direction: ltr; language: en-US; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 0.38in; margin-top: 0pt; tab-stops: left 18.0pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.38in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
</div>
Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-53925103586409105182014-11-27T06:03:00.003+08:002014-11-27T07:17:37.597+08:00GROWTH1. Growth is a:<o:p></o:p><br />
<ul>
<li>
characteristic
of <span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">all
living organisms</span>.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;">permanent
<span style="color: #0070c0;">irreversible increase</span> in size of an
organism <o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;">due to
<span style="color: #00b050;">increase in its dry mass</span>.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;">continue
<span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">throughout
the life</span> of an organism (eg: woody perennial plants)<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;">may <span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">cease when
organism reach maturity</span> (eg: man<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>or other mammals)<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
2. Result is irresversible:<o:p></o:p><br />
<ul>
<li>
increase in <span style="color: red;">volume</span>
of cytoplasm</li>
<li>Increase
in <span style="color: #0070c0;">number</span> of cells </li>
<li>increase
in <span style="color: #00b050;">differentiation</span> of cells<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
3. Growth in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">unicellular</b>
organisms:<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">reaches certain size</span> – divide to form two
separate cells<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="color: red;">size limited</span> - due to distance of cell over which
a nucleus can exert its controlling influence.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="color: #00b050;">division</span> - results in growth of populations.<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
4. Growth in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">multicellular</b>
organisms: <o:p></o:p><br />
<ul>
<li>
originate from a single
cell (the zygote)</li>
<li><span style="color: #00b050;">cell division</span> – increase in number of new
cells produced by mitosis<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">cell
expansion (cell enlargement)</span> – increase in <span style="color: #00b050;">size</span>,
<span style="color: #00b050;">volume</span> + <span style="color: #00b050;">mass</span>
(due to assimilation of food materials + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>metabolism)<o:p></o:p></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="color: red;">cell differentiation</span>:</li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;">
<span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"> i. cells undergo
progressive changes in metabolic activities</span>:<o:p></o:p></div>
– lead to changes in cell
structures <o:p></o:p><br />
– produce diff specialized
cells/tissues for dif functions<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> ii.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: #e06666; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><strong>in higher
animals</strong></span>:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>– produce tissues (epithelial tissue, nervous
tissue, muscle tissue + connective
tissue)<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> iii.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: lime; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><strong>in higher
plants</strong></span>:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>– produces tissues (meristematic tissue, ground
tissue + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>vascular tissue).<o:p></o:p><br />
<o:p> </o:p><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Morphogenesis<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<strong> <span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>result
from:</strong><br />
<ul>
<li><span style="color: red;">development</span>
(growth+ differentiation) of overall form of organs <o:p></o:p></li>
<li>
<span style="color: #0070c0;">formation</span> of multicellular
organism<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> <strong>b.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></strong></span><strong>cell
differentiation cause by:<o:p></o:p></strong><br />
<ul>
<li>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>differential expression of <span style="color: red;">genes</span>. <o:p></o:p></li>
<li>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>certain <span style="color: #00b0f0;">metabolites</span>
activate/repress gene in dif. cells. <o:p></o:p></li>
<li>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>some <span style="color: #7030a0;">hormones</span>
are able to switch genes on/off (help to determine overall pattern of
development)<o:p></o:p></li>
</ul>
<o:p> </o:p><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">FACTORS AFFECTING THE
<span style="color: #7030a0;">PATTERN</span> + <span style="color: red;">RATE</span>
OF GROWTH (<span style="color: #00b050;">PLANTS</span> + <span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">ANIMALS)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">External factors</span> affecting the rate of growth in
plants are:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<br />
<ol>
<li><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">light</span></b>
(intensity, wavelength and photoperiod) – affects photosynthesis,
photomorphogenesis, meristemic activities and flowering.</div>
</li>
<li><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Temperature</span></b>
which affects enzyme activities.<o:p></o:p></div>
</li>
<li>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Oxyge</span></b><span style="color: #00b050;">n</span> – require for aerobic respiration and seed
germination.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">Carbon dioxide</span></b> – for photosynthesis,
synthesis of organic molecules.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">Water</span></b>
– essential for many metabolic processes (photosynthesis, seed germination,
transportation of mineral salts/soluble organic material, vacuolation,
maintenance of plant cell turgidity</li>
<li><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">Relative
humidity of atm</span></b> – affects rate of transpiration.<o:p></o:p></div>
</li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">Minerals</span></b> (K+, Na+, Ca2+, NO3+) for plant
metabolism/growth/development.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">Gravity</span></b>
– affects distribution of growth regulators for geotropism <o:p></o:p></li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Seasonal influences</span></b>
– affect dormancy, abscission, reproduction and photoperiodism<o:p></o:p></li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Biotic factors</span></b>
-pathogen-caused plant diseases, intraspecific and interspecific competition
for space, sunlight, water and mineral salt).</li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">B. Internal factors</span> are:<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<br />
<ol>
<li><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: orange; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">Genotype</span></b> of the plant – determines the
synthesis of specific proteins and enzymes, the type of metabolism and size.<o:p></o:p></div>
</li>
<li>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>presence
and absence of growth regulators/plant <span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">hormones</b> (</span>auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins,
absciccis acid, ethene)<o:p></o:p></li>
</ol>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">C. Animal growth +
development are controlled mainly by:<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<br />
<ol>
<li><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">Genotype</span></b>
of the animal<o:p></o:p></div>
</li>
<li>
Animal
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">hormones</span></b>
(thyroxine and somathrophin).<o:p></o:p></li>
<li>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">Environmental</span></b> conditions (lights
intensity and photoperiod, temperature, oxygen, availability of water and
seasonal influences.<o:p></o:p></li>
<li>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Biotic factors</span></b>.</li>
</ol>
<br />
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: currentColor; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background-color: transparent; border: 1pt solid windowtext; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 25.5pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: center;">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.8pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Parameter<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 385.5pt;" valign="top" width="514"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Advantages + disadvantages<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 25.5pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
A</div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.8pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-_ThlqOvX750/VHZYVzv0kQI/AAAAAAAAAh0/-ueuGmaDOdM/s1600/height.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-_ThlqOvX750/VHZYVzv0kQI/AAAAAAAAAh0/-ueuGmaDOdM/s1600/height.jpg" height="200" width="194" /></a></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">Height and length<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 385.5pt;" valign="top" width="514"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">easy + quick to measure.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">growth can be measured continually<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #632423; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #632423; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #632423; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">only measures the length in one dimension + does
not take into account growth in other directions.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #632423; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 128;">An organism not increasing in height - may
continue to grow in girth or grow sideways (as in plant)</span></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 25.5pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
B</div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.8pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-L1LmFKPlr6A/VHZeqPhxS8I/AAAAAAAAAiE/kOUElFfiYnU/s1600/surface.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-L1LmFKPlr6A/VHZeqPhxS8I/AAAAAAAAAiE/kOUElFfiYnU/s1600/surface.jpg" height="200" width="174" /></a></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">Surface area<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 385.5pt;" valign="top" width="514"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;">more accurate
measurement.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;">eg: surface area
of a leaf attached to a plant can be measure at regular intervals over a
period of time.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Dif. + impractical to carry out if the
organism is irregular in shape.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>It’s assumed that plant growth is directly
proportional to the increase in the surface area of its leaves.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 25.5pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
C</div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.8pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ePpO6jMlWgE/VHZe9Meu24I/AAAAAAAAAiM/QbgCOe6hOsI/s1600/volume.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ePpO6jMlWgE/VHZe9Meu24I/AAAAAAAAAiM/QbgCOe6hOsI/s1600/volume.jpg" height="200" width="149" /></a></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">Volume, size<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 385.5pt;" valign="top" width="514"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #548dd4; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">Suitable for measuring organisms that are spherical
or cylindrical in shape.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Living organisms are rarely exactly spherical
and cylindrical in shape</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Not accurate measurement.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Dif. to carry out – complicated calculation
for organism with irregular shape. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 25.5pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
D</div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.8pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fsoFrtWpgdM/VHZfR-FW6MI/AAAAAAAAAiU/lATXPZlOyc4/s1600/dry.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fsoFrtWpgdM/VHZfR-FW6MI/AAAAAAAAAiU/lATXPZlOyc4/s1600/dry.jpg" height="107" width="200" /></a></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Dry mass <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 385.5pt;" valign="top" width="514"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #00b050;">More accurate
measurement of the organic materials (protein present in the body.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Water has to be removed by drying the
organism.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>This kills the organism, so continuous growth
of the same organism cannot be measured</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Have to use a large number of individuals from
the same population which have similar age and size.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 14.7pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 14.7pt left .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Dif. plants used may have dif, growth rates.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 25.5pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
E</div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 130.8pt;" valign="top" width="174"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EhPpOOs1hrg/VHZfgbqw5cI/AAAAAAAAAic/Eabd_LLtu2k/s1600/fresh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-EhPpOOs1hrg/VHZfgbqw5cI/AAAAAAAAAic/Eabd_LLtu2k/s1600/fresh.jpg" height="143" width="200" /></a></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Wet mass or fresh mass<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0) windowtext windowtext rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: 0px 1pt 1pt 0px; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 385.5pt;" valign="top" width="514"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">Easy to measure<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">No need to kill the
organism.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 18.9pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 18.9pt; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">Growth can be measured
continuously as repetitive measurements can be carried out.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Measurement may be inaccurate due to
fluctuations in water content in the body.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>May be more suitable for measuring growth in
animals but not for a living tree.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<o:p></o:p><br />
<ol>
</ol>
Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-19603648155054880462013-08-08T02:09:00.001+08:002014-11-27T04:58:01.152+08:00SEED DEVELOPMENT AND GERMINATION<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>After
fertilization:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">zygote</span></b> undergoes mitotic divisions <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>to form the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">embryo</span></b>.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Z6uC3FU4nVU/UgKQbYtK15I/AAAAAAAAAgk/gvXBPphissM/s1600/plant2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Z6uC3FU4nVU/UgKQbYtK15I/AAAAAAAAAgk/gvXBPphissM/s320/plant2.jpg" height="235" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-nIvIy-3a6oE/UgKQezIUYEI/AAAAAAAAAgs/X6dXd-LObWw/s1600/plant4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-nIvIy-3a6oE/UgKQezIUYEI/AAAAAAAAAgs/X6dXd-LObWw/s200/plant4.jpg" height="152" width="200" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Endosperm
muclei</span></b>:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>undergo mitotic divisions <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>to form <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">endosperm tissue</span></b>.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BZw1uln4KOU/UgKQitaIIYI/AAAAAAAAAg0/bPt5lthrWWw/s1600/plant5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-BZw1uln4KOU/UgKQitaIIYI/AAAAAAAAAg0/bPt5lthrWWw/s400/plant5.jpg" height="202" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Endospermic
+ embryonic development:</div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>occur in the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">ovule</b>. <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">integuments</span></b>
surrounding the ovule <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>will harden to form <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">seed coat</span></b>.<br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: red;">Ovary </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> will become the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">fruit</span></b>.<br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>There
are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">two</b> types of seeds:</div>
<span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #ffc000;"><strong>monocotyledon (</strong></span><span style="color: black;">seeds have one cotyledon) <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #5f497a; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 191;">dicotyledon (</span></b>seeds have two cotyledons)<br />
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<span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">Germination</span></b><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>emergence of the radicle <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>thru seed coat.<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-4L8jkigsCDE/UgUlPRN087I/AAAAAAAAAhM/v8aGxjBB9Ak/s1600/imbibition.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-4L8jkigsCDE/UgUlPRN087I/AAAAAAAAAhM/v8aGxjBB9Ak/s320/imbibition.jpg" height="210" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">Water</span></b>:</div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>required for germination<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>enters the seed by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">imbibition</span></b>.<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>initiate embryo to synthesise <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">gibberelin</span></b>. <br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">Gibberelin</span></b> will:</div>
. diffuse thru endosperm <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>into <span style="color: red;">aleurone layer</span>. <br />
. initiate production of <span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">hydrolytic enzymes</span>. <o:p></o:p><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #365f91; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Hydrolytic enzymes</span></b> will:<o:p></o:p></div>
. <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>enter <span style="color: #7030a0;">endosperm <o:p></o:p></span><br />
.<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>catalyse <span style="color: #7030a0;">conversion
of compound</span> (stored in endosperm).<o:p></o:p><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Products</span></b>
(especially glucose) will be:<o:p></o:p></div>
.<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>transferred to the embryo <o:p></o:p><br />
. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">used for <span style="color: red;">respiration</span><span style="color: #ffc000;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">+</span><span style="color: #ffc000;"> </span><span style="color: #00b050;">germination</span></span>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-33944259357609989362013-08-08T00:25:00.000+08:002013-08-08T01:05:28.058+08:00HUMAN FETAL DEVELOPMENT<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>After
eight weeks of development:<br />
<ul>
<li>
all the organs + systems <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>
been laid down. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>embryo = <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">foetus.</span></b></li>
</ul>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Extraembryonic
membranes:<br />
<ul>
<li>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">amnion</span>, <span style="color: #0070c0;">chorion</span>
+ <span style="color: #00b050;">allantois</span> <o:p></o:p></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo3;">formed from embryonic cells
</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo3;">in early stages of
embryonic development.</li>
</ul>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Amnion</span></b>:<br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>develops from the <strong><span style="color: red;">epiblast</span></strong>. <br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>encloses embryo in a fluid-filled amnioc sac, <br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>protecting embryo (foetus) from:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>abrupt temperature changes <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>mechanical impacts.<br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">Chorion</span></b>:</div>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>develops from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">trophoblast</span></b>. <br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>surrounds
the embryo + other extraembryonic membranes.<br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Aallantois</span></b>:</div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>develops from part of embryo’s <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">archenteron</b>.<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-opq03sRpqs0/UgJ8J9DtPTI/AAAAAAAAAgU/ALGWkaYvuOc/s1600/extra-embryonic-5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="204" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-opq03sRpqs0/UgJ8J9DtPTI/AAAAAAAAAgU/ALGWkaYvuOc/s320/extra-embryonic-5.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">Placenta</span></b>:</div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>consists of endometrial tissue + extraembryonic
membranes. <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>a specialized organ <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>allows exchange of materials <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>between maternal + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>foetal blood streams.<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">Foetal part of
the placenta <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ul>
<li>
arises
from amniotic + chorionic membranes.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in;">umbilical
blood vessels <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>formed from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">allantois</span></b>.</li>
</ul>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Materials
are exchanged across placenta by:<br />
<br />
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #0070c0; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">diffusion</span>,
<o:p></o:p></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: #31849b; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo13; mso-themecolor: accent5; mso-themeshade: 191; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">active transport<o:p></o:p></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">selective absorption.<o:p></o:p></b></li>
</ul>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Nutrients,
oxygen, water + antibodies:</div>
<ul>
<li>pass from the mother’s blood </li>
<li>into the fetal blood
circulatory system.</li>
</ul>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6OIlqgZsEYY/UgJ2UDFR16I/AAAAAAAAAfg/29snDlVF81g/s1600/extra-embryonic-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="138" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6OIlqgZsEYY/UgJ2UDFR16I/AAAAAAAAAfg/29snDlVF81g/s320/extra-embryonic-2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Umbilical artery</span></b>:</div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>carries blood <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">aorta</span></b> of foetus <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">placenta</b>,
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">Umbilical vein</span></b>:</div>
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>carries blood<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">placenta</b> <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">posterior vena cava</span></b> of foetus.<br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Placenta is
therefore:</div>
<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">site of gaseous exchange, <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #c00000; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">source of nutrients <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">excretory organ <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">source of antibodies</span></b><span style="color: #ffc000;">.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ffc000;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UizRcp3Wy6c/UgJ5ueLuq8I/AAAAAAAAAgE/_rJBBY9DuwQ/s1600/extra-embryonic-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="187" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-UizRcp3Wy6c/UgJ5ueLuq8I/AAAAAAAAAgE/_rJBBY9DuwQ/s320/extra-embryonic-3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Although foetal
+ maternal blood streams:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>flow very close to each other<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>but blood
do not mix.<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-nwCspDzzijM/UgJ5nO6QutI/AAAAAAAAAf8/k2F4gIoIJdI/s1600/extra-embryonic-4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="148" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-nwCspDzzijM/UgJ5nO6QutI/AAAAAAAAAf8/k2F4gIoIJdI/s320/extra-embryonic-4.jpg" width="320" /></a>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-50476103855247166372013-08-07T18:07:00.003+08:002013-08-07T18:34:02.284+08:00EMBRYOLOGY<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Embryonic
development;<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>is triggered by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">fertilisation</span></b>.<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>can be divided into three main stages: <br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Cleavage <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">Gastrulation</span>,
<o:p></o:p></b><br />
<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Organogenesis<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<o:p> </o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Cleavage</span></b>:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>division of the zygote<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>into daughter cells. <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>embryo (at the end of this stage) = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">blastula</span></b><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mj-U443_Qx8/UgIhZvdyXZI/AAAAAAAAAe0/nkoOEcx4QC0/s1600/blastula.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="109" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-mj-U443_Qx8/UgIhZvdyXZI/AAAAAAAAAe0/nkoOEcx4QC0/s320/blastula.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">Gastrulation</span></b>:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>arrangement of embryonic cells <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>into three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>endoderm). <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>embryo (at
the end of this stage) = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">gastrula</span></b>.<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JJlT6c6QOXI/UgIhdEsZWeI/AAAAAAAAAfA/dJ9OpGH0Kg0/s1600/gastula.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JJlT6c6QOXI/UgIhdEsZWeI/AAAAAAAAAfA/dJ9OpGH0Kg0/s320/gastula.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Organogenesis</span></b>:<br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>formation of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">organs</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">organ systems</span></b>. <br />
<span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>each germ layer <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>gives rise to different
organ systems.<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-4R_mOGwjuJY/UgIhf6ZN0_I/AAAAAAAAAfI/voeRsw61itI/s1600/organ.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="177" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-4R_mOGwjuJY/UgIhf6ZN0_I/AAAAAAAAAfI/voeRsw61itI/s400/organ.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-46269706698411011172012-09-16T01:33:00.000+08:002012-09-17T08:54:11.339+08:00Experiment 4 : Effect of temperature on enzymatic activity<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<strong><span style="color: #a64d79; font-size: x-large;">Experiment 4 by L6ScZeta 2012</span></strong></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5950_sXxj8M/UFS2cU0LunI/AAAAAAAAAbU/RCrShrhrWmM/s1600/07092012915.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5950_sXxj8M/UFS2cU0LunI/AAAAAAAAAbU/RCrShrhrWmM/s320/07092012915.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Enough or not?...enough or not??.....</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2jyMetiD8_U/UFS21z-c3OI/AAAAAAAAAbc/FwWXUK7S8c8/s1600/07092012918.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2jyMetiD8_U/UFS21z-c3OI/AAAAAAAAAbc/FwWXUK7S8c8/s320/07092012918.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">One drop...two drops...three drops........</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-StWwVUM_F_8/UFS3a8jxRrI/AAAAAAAAAbs/Ad4-Pke2PdA/s1600/07092012917.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-StWwVUM_F_8/UFS3a8jxRrI/AAAAAAAAAbs/Ad4-Pke2PdA/s320/07092012917.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Now...see this...this is how to hold it...</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rkcuk8ip21w/UFS2VGRf9_I/AAAAAAAAAbM/9Rp9MMvNUvw/s1600/07092012914.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-rkcuk8ip21w/UFS2VGRf9_I/AAAAAAAAAbM/9Rp9MMvNUvw/s320/07092012914.jpg" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Where is the reading???</td></tr>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;"></span></strong> </div>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;"></span></strong> </div>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;"></span></strong> </div>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;"></span></strong> </div>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;"></span></strong> </div>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;"></span></strong> </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1y6Ne6eVuWA/UFS3BCYrUyI/AAAAAAAAAbk/tL9B-PgE9w0/s1600/07092012919.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1y6Ne6eVuWA/UFS3BCYrUyI/AAAAAAAAAbk/tL9B-PgE9w0/s320/07092012919.jpg" unselectable="on" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wow....this stop watch is awesome!</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<strong><span style="color: #b45f06; font-size: x-large;">Experiment 4 by L6ScGamma 2012</span></strong></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LFf3e3FUIzY/UFS9lvqo2wI/AAAAAAAAAd4/jdkXPvBUX3s/s1600/11092012941.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LFf3e3FUIzY/UFS9lvqo2wI/AAAAAAAAAd4/jdkXPvBUX3s/s320/11092012941.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">L6ScGamma in action.......</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gfR_pU703Uc/UFS8mFDnZjI/AAAAAAAAAcs/3_zK234nATA/s1600/11092012923.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gfR_pU703Uc/UFS8mFDnZjI/AAAAAAAAAcs/3_zK234nATA/s320/11092012923.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Is this mine?...I think this is yours.........wait......I think.......</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/--AewcUW6bYs/UFS9DmH9ImI/AAAAAAAAAdM/bOTPV2YAzFE/s1600/11092012933.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/--AewcUW6bYs/UFS9DmH9ImI/AAAAAAAAAdM/bOTPV2YAzFE/s320/11092012933.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Give a BIG smile!...you're on candid camera........</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7pvPW60gIcY/UFS9Ki3HkpI/AAAAAAAAAdU/nFUbtwLeBis/s1600/11092012934.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7pvPW60gIcY/UFS9Ki3HkpI/AAAAAAAAAdU/nFUbtwLeBis/s320/11092012934.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Huh!....Oh..oh.!.caught in action........</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JmoHvhqpB-A/UFS89L-dMQI/AAAAAAAAAdE/4Zz5jcUtq0Q/s1600/11092012929.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JmoHvhqpB-A/UFS89L-dMQI/AAAAAAAAAdE/4Zz5jcUtq0Q/s320/11092012929.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ohhhh.....so......sweet........</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9aNlFOTyhhU/UFS82K_LJMI/AAAAAAAAAc8/AkXyyhucy4M/s1600/11092012927.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9aNlFOTyhhU/UFS82K_LJMI/AAAAAAAAAc8/AkXyyhucy4M/s320/11092012927.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">OK! Everybody! Time's up! Stop smiling and start working.......</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wzYCX3RyWFI/UFS8W-s8hXI/AAAAAAAAAcc/qsVFqkohyMk/s1600/11092012920.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wzYCX3RyWFI/UFS8W-s8hXI/AAAAAAAAAcc/qsVFqkohyMk/s320/11092012920.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">One drop...two drops...three drops....... Oh oh..no more already!</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cVrQA6Xt6rM/UFS91NefVWI/AAAAAAAAAeI/jPID15E9afg/s1600/11092012943.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cVrQA6Xt6rM/UFS91NefVWI/AAAAAAAAAeI/jPID15E9afg/s320/11092012943.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">I think mine is overcooked...How about yours? Oh!...mine is well done!</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1zGJDGE6GR4/UFS9S0RFMKI/AAAAAAAAAdg/XqVNI0Y9ubA/s1600/11092012935.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1zGJDGE6GR4/UFS9S0RFMKI/AAAAAAAAAdg/XqVNI0Y9ubA/s320/11092012935.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hemmm....how come mine is still dark blue.....???</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wua_UpsYC7Y/UFS9Y4U_maI/AAAAAAAAAdo/kPdbUeUPWsU/s1600/11092012936.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wua_UpsYC7Y/UFS9Y4U_maI/AAAAAAAAAdo/kPdbUeUPWsU/s320/11092012936.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Now...add saliva to the starch slowwwww...ly.......and..... stir fast!</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br />Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-67888273810205448732012-09-16T00:48:00.001+08:002012-09-17T08:53:15.031+08:00Experiment 1: Measurement of cell size using microscope<br />
<span style="font-size: x-large;">Experiment 1 by L6ScBeta 2012</span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dIWkCbRG-54/UFSutalkmoI/AAAAAAAAAZ4/VqtXi2SlqVc/s1600/05092012909.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dIWkCbRG-54/UFSutalkmoI/AAAAAAAAAZ4/VqtXi2SlqVc/s320/05092012909.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Light microscope was used in the experiment. What are the magnification of eyepiece and all the objective lenses?</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-m4pSksVhayA/UFSu1eNwg9I/AAAAAAAAAaA/pRu9DOih2Ok/s1600/05092012907.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-m4pSksVhayA/UFSu1eNwg9I/AAAAAAAAAaA/pRu9DOih2Ok/s320/05092012907.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Lower Six Science Beta students were trying out the microscope.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zsHkx-pUE7Q/UFSu8KAVg5I/AAAAAAAAAaI/1J70giPvzds/s1600/05092012908.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zsHkx-pUE7Q/UFSu8KAVg5I/AAAAAAAAAaI/1J70giPvzds/s320/05092012908.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The students were listening to the instructions given by the teacher.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-56697205401196588472012-09-15T23:42:00.001+08:002012-09-16T00:08:59.548+08:00HORMONES IN REPRODUCTION II<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Early pregnancy</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b0f0;">trophoblastic cells</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> secrete <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">HCG</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which signals the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #5f497a; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 191;">corpus luteum</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to continue its secretion of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span></b>
+ <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">progesterone</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-LrPbVmG8gP8/UFSjuBFZMMI/AAAAAAAAAZA/wjvzvb-5TnY/s1600/horm.re6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-LrPbVmG8gP8/UFSjuBFZMMI/AAAAAAAAAZA/wjvzvb-5TnY/s400/horm.re6.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1">
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1">
<v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0">
</v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
<v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
<o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1026" style="height: 63pt; left: 0px; margin-left: 522pt; margin-top: 11.75pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; width: 43.25pt; z-index: 251658752;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:\Users\MYACER~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Later in pregnancy</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">secretion of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span></b>
+ <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">progesterone</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">is taken over by the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">placenta</span></b>.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9JXi5YPxib4/UFSjvVyD1sI/AAAAAAAAAZI/47AiOstRxF4/s1600/horm.re7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="176" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9JXi5YPxib4/UFSjvVyD1sI/AAAAAAAAAZI/47AiOstRxF4/s400/horm.re7.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">Progesterone</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span></b>:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">develop + maintain <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">endometrium</b> (of the uterus) <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">throughout pregnancy.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">ostrogen</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> - promotes
uterine <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">contraction</span></b>,
while <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">progesterone</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> - <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">inhibits</span></b>
it.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">In late pregnancy</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> - <span style="color: red;">↑</span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span></b> levels <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">increase</b> with respect to progesterone.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6T6xbZg-AHE/UFSjnqGOLCI/AAAAAAAAAY4/8S1kSHmMokA/s1600/horm.re5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="168" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6T6xbZg-AHE/UFSjnqGOLCI/AAAAAAAAAY4/8S1kSHmMokA/s400/horm.re5.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Prior to birth:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">oxytocin</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">
stimulates uterine wall contractions <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">causing the baby to be delivered.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">During pregnancy</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">the effect of prolactin (which
promotes milk production)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">is inhibited by high levels of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span></b>
+ <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">progesterone</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">After birth</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">When <span style="color: red;">↓</span>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span>
+ </b><span style="color: red;">↓ </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">progesterone</span></b> levels <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">drop</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ff33cc;">prolactin</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> causes
the breast to <span style="color: #ff33cc;">produce milk</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">The interaction between
hormones:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">oestrogen</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">oxytocin</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">and local regulators (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">prostaglandins</span></b>)
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">induce + regulate <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">labour</span></b>.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7zAju99w9eQ/UFSnl_MJTJI/AAAAAAAAAZg/IsPDUgs71aE/s1600/horm.re8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7zAju99w9eQ/UFSnl_MJTJI/AAAAAAAAAZg/IsPDUgs71aE/s320/horm.re8.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">Oestrogens</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>which reach their <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">highest level</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">during the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">last weeks</span></b> of pregnancy<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">trigger the formation of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">oxytocin</span><span style="color: #92d050;"> receptors</span></b> on the uterus.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ff9900;">Oxytocin</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">stimulates powerful <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #31849b; mso-themecolor: accent5; mso-themeshade: 191;">contractions</span></b> of the uterus.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">also stimulates placenta to
secrete <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">prostagladins</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #c00000;">Prostaglandins</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">enhance the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">contractions</span></b> or the uterus, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">making them <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">more powerful</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #948a54; mso-themecolor: background2; mso-themeshade: 128;">more frequent</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">Physical</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> +<span style="color: #5f497a; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 191;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">emotional</b></span> stresses:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">in turn, stimulate the release
of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">more</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">oxytocin</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">prostaglandins</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">This <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">positive feedback</span></b> system </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> underlies the three stages of labour.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-81982599294390848762012-09-15T22:36:00.003+08:002012-09-15T22:52:53.524+08:00HORMONES IN REPRODUCTION I<br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Menstrual cycle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">lasts an average of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">28</span></b> days<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">controlled by
the brain <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">via <span style="color: red;">hormones
</span>produced by the pituitary.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pVEGt9lkZts/UFSUW8gcVEI/AAAAAAAAAYI/z4mHK6KGuuQ/s1600/horm.re1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="193" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pVEGt9lkZts/UFSUW8gcVEI/AAAAAAAAAYI/z4mHK6KGuuQ/s400/horm.re1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">Hypothalamus</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">produces <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">GnRH</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which stimulates <span style="color: red;">anterior pituitary</span> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to secrete <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">FSH</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff0066;">LH</span></b> into the blood.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">FSH</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">stimulates ovarian <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">follicle growth</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which in turn <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">secretes oestrogen</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to stimulates the regrowth of
the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">lining of uterus</span></b>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-c2kR07C-u5I/UFSUYJKtq5I/AAAAAAAAAYQ/WgGozecKNP8/s1600/horm.re2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-c2kR07C-u5I/UFSUYJKtq5I/AAAAAAAAAYQ/WgGozecKNP8/s400/horm.re2.jpg" width="400" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">Early in the cycle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">low level</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> of <span style="color: #e36c0a;">oestrogen </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">↓</span></b> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">inhibits</span></b> secretion of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">FSH</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff0066;">LH</span></b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">X</span></b>.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"> </span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">Middle of the cycle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">high levels</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> <span style="color: #e36c0a;">oestrogen</span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">↑</span></b></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">stimulates</span></b>
a surge of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">FSH</span></b>
+ <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff0066;">LH</span></b>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">↑</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">surge of LH </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> triggers o<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">vulation</b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">ruptured <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">follicle</b> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> develops
into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">corpus luteum</b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">corpus luteum </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> secretes <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a;">oestrogen + </span><span style="color: #00b050;">progesterone</span></b>.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KssljYp7slw/UFSUaturlOI/AAAAAAAAAYY/NiK-UfZ1yp4/s1600/horm.re3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="196" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KssljYp7slw/UFSUaturlOI/AAAAAAAAAYY/NiK-UfZ1yp4/s400/horm.re3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">After ovulation</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">high levels of both <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a;">oestrogen</span>
+ <span style="color: #00b050;">progesterone</span></b> levels to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">drop</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">At the end of the cycle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">drop in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">↓ </span><span style="color: #e36c0a;">oestrogen</span></b>
+ <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">progesterone</span></b>
blood levels <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">causes uterine lining to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">disintegrate</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">frees pituitary</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> from inhibition <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">thus triggering the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">secretion</span> of
FSH + LH</b>, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which stimulates development of
a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">new follicle</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-P-vBDSpYB_A/UFSUbymsmoI/AAAAAAAAAYg/Cz2GsdLLDAM/s1600/horm.re4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-P-vBDSpYB_A/UFSUbymsmoI/AAAAAAAAAYg/Cz2GsdLLDAM/s400/horm.re4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Menstrual cycle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">refers to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">changes</span></b> that occur in the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">uterus</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which begins with <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">menstrual flow
phase</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">followed by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">proliferative
phase</span></b>, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">last phase - <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">secretory phase</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">Ovarian cycle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = running
parallel to the menstrual cycle<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which begins with the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">follicular
phase</span></b>, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">followed by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">ovulation</span></b><span style="color: #00b050;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">later, the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">luteal phase</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
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<v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
<o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1026" style="height: 108pt; left: 0px; margin-left: 461pt; margin-top: 25.45pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; width: 102.2pt; z-index: 251657728;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:\Users\MYACER~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #7030a0;">Changes in the ovary + uterus</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">are correlated <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">with the changing pituitary +
ovarian <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">hormone
levels</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
- <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">in menstrual cycle.</span>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-49278734610615694882012-09-10T22:17:00.002+08:002012-09-10T22:29:16.402+08:00HORMONAL ACTION<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Hormones are molecules:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">produced by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">endocrine</span></b>
glands <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">secreted <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">into blood</span></b> stream. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">transported <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">all over</span></b>
the body <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">act on <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">target organs</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> groups of hormones (according
to mode of action):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">steroid
hormones <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">peptide hormones<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">Steroid
hormones</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">eg: <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">oestrogen</span></b>, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">progesterone</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">testosterone</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">derived from blood lipid <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">cholesterol</span></b>.
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">lipids</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">so <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">can enter cells</b> easily <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">passing
through</span></b> phospholipids (part of plasma membrane).</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7qd5-eBvrwM/UE35H0TqVjI/AAAAAAAAAXw/r1h7SuSqIFY/s1600/horm1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="136" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7qd5-eBvrwM/UE35H0TqVjI/AAAAAAAAAXw/r1h7SuSqIFY/s400/horm1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">In cytoplasm</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">hormone <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">binds</span></b> to a protein receptor<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">forms a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">hormone-receptor</span></b>
complex <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">then <span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">moves</span><span style="color: red;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">into nucleus</b></span> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">binds</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #31849b; mso-themecolor: accent5; mso-themeshade: 191;">specific region</span></b> of the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">DNA</b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">activates genetic <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">transcription</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which produces <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">mRNA</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">then <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">diffuses out</span></b> of nucleus <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">cytoplasm</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">binds to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">ribosomes</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">translate </span></b><span lang="EN-GB">into<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"> protein</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-D-tSCJKFqxI/UE33jh6zmtI/AAAAAAAAAXo/KOVQrE4UIW8/s1600/horm2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="161" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-D-tSCJKFqxI/UE33jh6zmtI/AAAAAAAAAXo/KOVQrE4UIW8/s400/horm2.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">Peptide hormone</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">eg: <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">adrenaline</span></b>, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">glucagons</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">insulin</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">derived from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">amino acids</span></b>.
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">polar</span></b> (thus <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">cannot enter cells</b> easily)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">Peptide hormone</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">binds</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> to the protein
receptor (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">on the membrane</b>)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">forming a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">hormone-receptor</span></b>
complex <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which then activates a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">membrane enzyme</b> (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">adenylate cyclase</span></b>). <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">then catalyses the conversion
of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">ATP</span></b>
to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">cAMP</span></b>
(2nd messenger).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">initiates a complex <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">chain reaction</span></b>
(<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">cascade effect</b>)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">simplifies response</b> of the hormone.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-WbULK-r0ios/UE33OvoryZI/AAAAAAAAAXg/jbyHRAbF-gw/s1600/horm3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="165" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-WbULK-r0ios/UE33OvoryZI/AAAAAAAAAXg/jbyHRAbF-gw/s400/horm3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span><br />Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-62861467141932345452012-07-30T01:18:00.002+08:002012-07-31T15:02:49.589+08:00NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION II<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Thick myosin filament</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">made up of myosin molecule.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">has a <span style="color: #cc0099;">long
tail</span> + <span style="color: #cc0099;">double head</span> (projects from filament’s
surface).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">head - contains <span style="color: #cc0099;">ATP binding site</span>.</span><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qWBSdHoXDD8/UBVzsezTsHI/AAAAAAAAAWA/0VdWHymR1lg/s1600/mus8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qWBSdHoXDD8/UBVzsezTsHI/AAAAAAAAAWA/0VdWHymR1lg/s320/mus8.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-AUHWcebPeRQ/UBVzvq3AqeI/AAAAAAAAAWI/A1W1g_VURKo/s1600/mus9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-AUHWcebPeRQ/UBVzvq3AqeI/AAAAAAAAAWI/A1W1g_VURKo/s320/mus9.jpg" width="320" /></a><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-H9n__Zmx12M/UBVzzLLU4DI/AAAAAAAAAWQ/-sQiXnr4NRc/s1600/mus10.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="167" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-H9n__Zmx12M/UBVzzLLU4DI/AAAAAAAAAWQ/-sQiXnr4NRc/s200/mus10.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Thin actin filament made</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> up of:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">two strands of globular actin
protein (twisted together)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">regulatory proteins (<span style="color: #00b050;">troponin + tropomyosin</span>).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">When<span style="color: red;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ca<sup>2+</sup></b></span> is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">not</span></b>
available:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">troponin +
tropomyosin</span><span lang="EN-GB"> - <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">block myosin binding sites</span></b> (on actin filaments).</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Muscular junction</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">specialised form of synapse <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">found <span style="color: red;">between</span>
<span style="color: #00b0f0;">motor neuron + sleletal muscle</span>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">spans across <span style="color: red;">one unit</span> of sarcomere.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Sarcolemma</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = postsynaptic
membrane<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Acetylcholine</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = transmitter
substance (in synaptic vesicles).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #cc0099;">Acetylecholine binding sites</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = located in the folds of the sacrcolemma<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">Calcium ions</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">found in abundance<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">in sarcoplasmic reticulum.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">T tubules</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = very
closely associated with sarcoplasmic reticulum.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-WkDtSLyCy4g/UBVz6jbKNKI/AAAAAAAAAWo/9coMJstxwaY/s1600/mus13.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="222" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-WkDtSLyCy4g/UBVz6jbKNKI/AAAAAAAAAWo/9coMJstxwaY/s400/mus13.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Nervous
impulse</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">arriving at the neuromuscular junction <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">generates</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">
action potential <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">spreads</span></b> along sarcolemma.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-zSu1vPtzLzQ/UBVz8anpS0I/AAAAAAAAAWw/4_O4m-F4vno/s1600/mus14.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="208" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-zSu1vPtzLzQ/UBVz8anpS0I/AAAAAAAAAWw/4_O4m-F4vno/s400/mus14.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Action
potential</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">depolarises <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">T tubule</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">causing <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">sarcoplasmic reticulum</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to release <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">Ca<sup>2+</sup> ions</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">sarcoplasm</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">allow actin + myosin filaments to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">interact</span></b>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Pr9Rgps8Xlk/UBVz-_SX31I/AAAAAAAAAW4/GDJ3qS-xu00/s1600/mus15.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="172" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Pr9Rgps8Xlk/UBVz-_SX31I/AAAAAAAAAW4/GDJ3qS-xu00/s400/mus15.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">ATP</span><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">provides <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">energy</span></b> needed <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to power the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #92d050;">sliding +
pulling motion</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">between <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">actin + myosin</span></b>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2NTCFw8umak/UBV0AT08H2I/AAAAAAAAAXA/MucQAjZe3R0/s1600/mus16.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="191" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-2NTCFw8umak/UBV0AT08H2I/AAAAAAAAAXA/MucQAjZe3R0/s320/mus16.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">If <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">Ca<sup>2+</sup> ions</span></b> + <span style="color: red;">ATP</span> conc. is sufficiently high </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> sequence will be repeated.<o:p></o:p></span>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-83300606278077548962012-07-29T22:14:00.001+08:002012-07-30T01:12:44.634+08:00NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION I<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Skeletal muscle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">consists of a bundle of long <span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">fibres</span> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">running the length of the
muscle.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">Muscle
fibre</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">”<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <span style="color: blue;">
</span></span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themetint: 153;">long</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> cylindrical cell <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">with <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themetint: 153;">many
nuclei</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">each consists of smaller <span style="color: blue;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themetint: 153;">myofibrils</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">arranged <span style="color: blue;"><strong>longitudinally</strong></span>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-q_2vWSo6lv4/UBVr3f6zfUI/AAAAAAAAAU4/mVDcO3_mWdk/s1600/mus1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="205" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-q_2vWSo6lv4/UBVr3f6zfUI/AAAAAAAAAU4/mVDcO3_mWdk/s400/mus1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Content</span><span lang="EN-GB"> of muscle fibre: <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">cytoplasm</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> (sarcoplasm)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">mitochondria</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">endoplasmic
reticulum</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> (sarcoplasmic reticulum),<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">plasma
membrane</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> (sarcolemma).</span><br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-g8ws1DHqhyI/UBVr5asgWaI/AAAAAAAAAVA/Y-xjuqEkGYg/s1600/mus2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="196" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-g8ws1DHqhyI/UBVr5asgWaI/AAAAAAAAAVA/Y-xjuqEkGYg/s400/mus2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Sarcolemma</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">folded inwards <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">at <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">intervals</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to form <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">T tubules</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">T tubules</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> - very
closely associated with the sarcoplasmic reticulum.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">Myofibril</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = composed
of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">thick</span></b><span style="color: #ffc000;"> + </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">thin</span></b><span style="color: #ffc000;"> filaments</span>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">Thick</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> filaments = composed of protein <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">myosin</span></b><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">.</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">Thin</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> filaments =
composed of protein <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">actin</span></b><span style="color: #76923c; mso-themecolor: accent3; mso-themeshade: 191;">.</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">organised into repeating units (<span style="color: red;">sarcomeres</span>).</span><br />
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OVXkpnyfurE/UBVr_LEEuII/AAAAAAAAAVI/Jzy1r51jxcE/s1600/mus3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="188" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OVXkpnyfurE/UBVr_LEEuII/AAAAAAAAAVI/Jzy1r51jxcE/s400/mus3.jpg" width="400" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Sarcomeres</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">basic units</span><span lang="EN-GB"> of
muscle contraction.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">shortening</span><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> causes whole muscle fibre to shorten.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">j</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">oined</span><span lang="EN-GB"> at their ends by <span style="color: red;"><strong>2</strong></span> lines (Z lines).</span><br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qa0Ejb1V_EE/UBVsKMx5WOI/AAAAAAAAAVQ/iYNSY_jLCNo/s1600/mus4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="181" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qa0Ejb1V_EE/UBVsKMx5WOI/AAAAAAAAAVQ/iYNSY_jLCNo/s400/mus4.jpg" width="400" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Arrangemen</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">t</span><span lang="EN-GB"> of thick (myosin) + thin (actin)
filaments:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">form </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #cc0099;">sarcomere</span><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> hence the whole muscle contracts.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">form <span style="color: #cc0099;">alternating
light + dark</span> bands in a skeletal muscle <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">form <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #cc0099;">striations</span></b> pattern.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">banded pattern = Z lines, A
band, I band + H zones.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1bg6v02arYc/UBVsM3DDnuI/AAAAAAAAAVY/ZlESSxL1yKo/s1600/mus5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="176" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1bg6v02arYc/UBVsM3DDnuI/AAAAAAAAAVY/ZlESSxL1yKo/s400/mus5.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">During muscle contraction</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">changes in<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> banding</b> pattern <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">due to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">sliding motion</b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">between thick + thin filaments.</span><br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ojs-pwHl47Q/UBVsPxJuZgI/AAAAAAAAAVg/fmHHmIxKy7o/s1600/mus6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="275" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ojs-pwHl47Q/UBVsPxJuZgI/AAAAAAAAAVg/fmHHmIxKy7o/s320/mus6.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-72542450936166747972012-07-22T02:01:00.001+08:002012-07-22T14:06:54.579+08:00SYNAPSE<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Synapse</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = unique
junction between <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">2</span></b> adjacent neurones.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-OVdHgKFQss0/UAuXEgoxXHI/AAAAAAAAAT8/6AuraciD7s8/s1600/syn1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-OVdHgKFQss0/UAuXEgoxXHI/AAAAAAAAAT8/6AuraciD7s8/s320/syn1.jpg" width="281" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">Presynaptic neurones</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> (bounded by a presynaptic membrane) </span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"> =.Neurones - which carry
impulses <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">to</span></b>
synapse<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #0070c0;">Postsynaptic neurones</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> ( bounded by a postsynaptic membrane) </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"> =.Neurones - which carry
impulses <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">away</span></b>
from synapses, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">Synaptic knob</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">
(axon terminal) = swollen distal end of a motor neurons axon </span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-r3BRxXkWl1I/UAuXKpAODuI/AAAAAAAAAUM/PIl_fnHqhno/s1600/syn3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="175" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-r3BRxXkWl1I/UAuXKpAODuI/AAAAAAAAAUM/PIl_fnHqhno/s400/syn3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Within the synaptic knob are:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ffc000;">mitochondria <o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">vesicle</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">s (packed
with <span style="color: red;">neurotransmitter</span>).</span><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">A <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">neurotransmitter</b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #7030a0;">:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #d99594;">chemica</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">l messenger
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">used by neurones<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">communicate</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">with each other <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">or with effectors.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">On the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #8064a2; mso-themecolor: accent4;">postsynaptic
membrane</span></b>:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">there are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">protein
receptors</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">for the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">attachment</span></b>
of neurotransmitters.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">When an action potential</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">
arrives at the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">synaptic knob</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">
causes influx of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">Ca<sup>2+</sup></span></b> ions<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">into synaptic knob<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">stimulates the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">fusion of vesicles</span></b>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">+ presynaptic membrane</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">release of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">neurotransmitter</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">synaptic cleft</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;">exocytosis</span></b>.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">The neurotransmitter</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">diffuses <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">across</span></b> the synaptic cleft <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">binds to the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">protein receptors</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">on the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">postsynaptic</span></b> membrane <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">causing <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00cc00;">depolarisation</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>it is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">removed</span></b> from the synaptic cleft <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">hydrolysis</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">re-uptake</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> into the synaptic knob <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">prevent</span></b>
further unwanted effect.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Cocaine</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">preventing</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">reuptake</span><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;"> </span></b>of<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 153;"> </span><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">dopamine</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">into the synaptic knob, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">resulting in <span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">generation</span> of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 191;">repeated
impulses</span></b>, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">producing feeling of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">euphoria</span></b>.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Curare</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> :<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #8064a2; mso-themecolor: accent4;">binding</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> to the protein <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #8064a2; mso-themecolor: accent4;">receptor for acetylcholine</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">on postsynaptic membrane <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #8064a2; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings; mso-themecolor: accent4;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #8064a2; mso-themecolor: accent4;">prevents the transmission of the impulse <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">causing <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">paralysis</span></b>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-L6-FS4O_I8I/UAuXTPBJr1I/AAAAAAAAAUs/MIqBhJIxlO0/s1600/syn7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="173" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-L6-FS4O_I8I/UAuXTPBJr1I/AAAAAAAAAUs/MIqBhJIxlO0/s400/syn7.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-69524369277994271702012-07-18T23:13:00.001+08:002012-07-18T23:28:39.153+08:00NERVE IMPULSE<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Membrane potential</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">difference in electrical charge
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">across the plasma membrane.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HX1vBgiDJfs/UAbTHctBF4I/AAAAAAAAATA/ciQEf9sRNKk/s1600/nerv9.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="158" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HX1vBgiDJfs/UAbTHctBF4I/AAAAAAAAATA/ciQEf9sRNKk/s400/nerv9.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Resting potential</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">neurone in its resting state <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">usually has a membrane
potential of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #cc0000;">-70mV</span></b>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">maintained by the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #cc0000;">sodium-potassium
</span><span style="color: red;">pumps</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which <span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">actively</span> transport <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">sodium
ions </span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #d99594; font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">ß</span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;"> out</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the cell <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">potassium
ions </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #95b3d7; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;"> into</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> the cell. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">require <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">ATP</span></b> from respiration.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">In resting neurone</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">membrane is more <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">permeable</span></b>
to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">K<sup>+</sup> than to Na<sup>+</sup>.</b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #8db3e2; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 102;">potassium</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> ions move <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #8db3e2; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themetint: 102;">out</span></b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">sodium</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> ions move <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">in</span></b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">thru <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">passive</span></b> ion channels.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">When the axon is stimulated</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">Na<sup>+</sup></span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> ions diffuse <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">in </b><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">polarity of the membrane in
reversed <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">-70mV</b> inside value <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">+40mV</span></b> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>inside. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">axon is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">depolarised</span></b>.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Polarity change</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">action
potential</span></b> = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">nerve impulse</span></b>.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Stimulus</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">opens</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> up Na<sup>+</sup> channels, <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which allow <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Na<sup>+</sup> to flood in</b> by diffusion<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">thus <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">depolarising</span></b>
the axon<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">sodium-potassium pumps <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">stop</span></b>.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">In response to depolarisation</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB">K<sup>+</sup> ions diffuse out</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> along a
concentration gradient<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">starting off <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">repolarisation</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">inside membrane becomes <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">more -ve</span></b> than resting potential<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">thus creating a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">refractory period</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">sodium-potassium pumps then <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #f79646; mso-themecolor: accent6;">start </span></b>again. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">re-establishes the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">resting potential</b> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">Axon can also be excited by direct application of</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #00b050;">mechanical</span><span lang="EN-GB"> stimuli<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">osmotic</span><span lang="EN-GB"> stimuli<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #009900;">chemical</span><span lang="EN-GB"> stimuli<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">thermal</span><span lang="EN-GB"> stimuli<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #009900;">electrical</span><span lang="EN-GB"> stimuli.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-aXtQ3CreE70/UAbTSfrpr9I/AAAAAAAAATg/tjPxd2VzIg4/s1600/nerv13.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="185" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-aXtQ3CreE70/UAbTSfrpr9I/AAAAAAAAATg/tjPxd2VzIg4/s400/nerv13.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ff0066;">Action potential</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">can be generated if stimulus
reaches certain threshold level. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">more intense stimulus:</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> will not give greater action potential. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">once threshold level is reached:
</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> size of an impulse </span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> is independent of the intensity of the stimulus </span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"> = all-or-nothing
law.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Q5bwjuf2F2E/UAbTUDdi_AI/AAAAAAAAATo/ZPWJmzyA8yE/s1600/nerv14.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="170" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Q5bwjuf2F2E/UAbTUDdi_AI/AAAAAAAAATo/ZPWJmzyA8yE/s400/nerv14.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue;">During refractory
period</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">neurone is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">insensitive</span></b> to depolarisation. </span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue;">In </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ff9900;">absolute refractory period</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">cannot</span></b> transmit another action
potential </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> <span style="color: #00b050;">no
matter how great</span> a stimulus is applied.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue;">In </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ffc000;">relative refractory period</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> axon <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">can transmit</span></b> impulses </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> but stimulus must be <span style="color: #00b050;">stronger</span>
than usual.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dsyv-h3sTi0/UAbTVxkoNiI/AAAAAAAAATw/jAbo8GTYnkk/s1600/nerv15.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dsyv-h3sTi0/UAbTVxkoNiI/AAAAAAAAATw/jAbo8GTYnkk/s1600/nerv15.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">2</span></b><span lang="EN-GB"> factors determine the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">speed</span></b> of impulse transmission:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #009900;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #009900;">axon diameter <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ff9900;">myelin sheath</span><span lang="EN-GB">.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #ff0066;">An action potential</span><span lang="EN-GB">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">self-propagation (regenerating
repeatedly along the axon)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">when wave of depolarization
travels down the axon.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;">In
non-myelinated neurones:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: red;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> speed
of impulse transmission </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">
proportional to diameter of axon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue;">In
myelinated neurones:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: blue;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> action potential jumps from node of Ranvier to the next </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> speed up impulse transmission = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">saltatory conduction</span>.</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-3745963725039805322012-07-18T18:11:00.001+08:002012-07-18T22:06:22.515+08:00THE NERVOUS SYSTEM<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Nervous system:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ensures the whole body responds appropriately <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to external conditions.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ZlhwTyy4zqs/UAa9rnTe6oI/AAAAAAAAAR0/6sdtfujtfhs/s1600/nerv1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ZlhwTyy4zqs/UAa9rnTe6oI/AAAAAAAAAR0/6sdtfujtfhs/s400/nerv1.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Human nervous system can be
divided into <span style="color: red;"><strong>2</strong></span> parts:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: red;">central nervous system (CNS)</span> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <span style="color: blue;">
</span></span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: blue;">peripheral nervous system(PNS).<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: red;"><strong>CNS</strong></span> is:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">divided into <strong><span style="color: orange;">somatic</span></strong> + <span style="color: #cc0000;"><strong>autonomic</strong></span>
nervous system.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">made up of <span style="color: #a64d79;"><strong>brain</strong></span> + <strong><span style="color: magenta;">spinal</span></strong> cord,
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>PNS</strong></span> is:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">made up of paired <strong><span style="color: #6aa84f;">cranian</span></strong> + <span style="color: magenta;"><strong>spinal</strong></span>
nerves.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xNKmxRqZ4KQ/UAa9v4pGC0I/AAAAAAAAAR8/NrpLmb1cSbY/s1600/nerv2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="172" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xNKmxRqZ4KQ/UAa9v4pGC0I/AAAAAAAAAR8/NrpLmb1cSbY/s400/nerv2.jpg" width="400" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #a64d79;"><strong>Brain</strong></span> is:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">made up of <strong><span style="color: #f1c232;">grey matter</span></strong> (located
in the outer cortex) + <strong><span style="color: #93c47d;">white matter</span></strong> (inside brain)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">divided into 3 regions: <span style="color: #e06666;">forebrain</span>,
<span style="color: #cc0000;">midbrain</span>, <span style="color: #660000;">hindbrain</span>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nfRR436KyXc/UAa9x-mYmzI/AAAAAAAAASE/9gXNcNzY6NU/s1600/nerv3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="182" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nfRR436KyXc/UAa9x-mYmzI/AAAAAAAAASE/9gXNcNzY6NU/s400/nerv3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background-color: white; color: blue;"><strong>PNS</strong></span> has <span style="color: red;"><strong>2</strong></span> sets of neurons: <span style="color: lime;">sensory</span>
+ <span style="color: #3d85c6;">motor</span> neurones.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-eNrdYSjEEFM/UAa90F7b-UI/AAAAAAAAASM/YQ4SI5KTTxY/s1600/nerv4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="123" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-eNrdYSjEEFM/UAa90F7b-UI/AAAAAAAAASM/YQ4SI5KTTxY/s400/nerv4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><strong>Motor</strong> </span>neurones are divided into:
<span style="color: #cc0000;"><strong>somatic</strong></span> + <span style="color: orange;"><strong>autonomic</strong></span> nervous system.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Divisions of
the autonomic nervous system are distinguished by where the nerves originate.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Nerves of the <strong><span style="color: red;">sympathetic
nervous</span></strong> <span style="color: red;"><strong>system</strong></span> emerge from:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #e06666;">upper + central spinal cord</span> regions<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #990000;">thoracic regions<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <span style="color: #ea9999;">
</span></span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #660000;">lumbar regions</span>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">Nerves of the <span style="color: blue;"><strong>parasympathetic nerves system</strong></span> originate from:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">cranial nerves</span> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">sacral region</span> of the spinal
cord.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #e69138;">Autonomic nervous system</span>:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">controls the<span style="color: #b45f06;"> involuntary</span>
activities <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">of the <span style="color: #b45f06;">internal organs</span>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-74fhPXSbvyk/UAa93Ju_uyI/AAAAAAAAASU/b1TfHjb3hUY/s1600/nerv5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="166" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-74fhPXSbvyk/UAa93Ju_uyI/AAAAAAAAASU/b1TfHjb3hUY/s400/nerv5.jpg" width="400" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>Parasympathetic</strong></span> nervous system:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">maintains the<span style="color: #3d85c6;"> normal
functioning</span> of the body<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">in a <span style="color: #3d85c6;">non-threatening</span> situation <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">helps keep the body in a
<span style="color: #3d85c6;">relaxed + unstressed</span> condition.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: red;">Sympathetic</span> nervous system:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">brings about <span style="color: #e06666;">physiological
responses</span> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">to <span style="color: #e06666;">threatening </span>situations.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-U74yAXN5AtY/UAa-Fj9BkjI/AAAAAAAAASs/AOJkywiD3c0/s1600/nerv8.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="145" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-U74yAXN5AtY/UAa-Fj9BkjI/AAAAAAAAASs/AOJkywiD3c0/s400/nerv8.jpg" width="400" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"></span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">A neurone:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><strong><span style="color: magenta;">nerve cell</span></strong>:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">which <strong><span style="color: magenta;">conveys information<o:p></o:p></span></strong></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">in the form of nerve <strong><span style="color: magenta;">impulses<o:p></o:p></span></strong></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><strong><span style="color: magenta;">basic functional unit</span></strong> of the
nervous system.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">There are <span style="color: orange;"><strong>3</strong></span> types of neurones:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: orange;">motor, <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="color: orange;"> <span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB">sensory <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="color: orange;"> <span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: orange;">interneurones</span>.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-m-ZZHkxfYrc/UAa-DOKK-gI/AAAAAAAAASk/-h83JepLqkk/s1600/nerv7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="251" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-m-ZZHkxfYrc/UAa-DOKK-gI/AAAAAAAAASk/-h83JepLqkk/s400/nerv7.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #38761d;"><span lang="EN-GB"><strong>Motor</strong> neurones - carry impulses - from the CNS</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> to effectors.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #134f5c;"><span lang="EN-GB"><strong>Sensory</strong> neurones - carry impulses - from sensory receptors </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> to the CNS.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">18.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="color: #741b47;"><strong>Interneurones</strong> - relay impulses - between sensory + motor neurones</span>.<o:p></o:p></span>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-52125424069902722492012-07-09T00:47:00.002+08:002012-07-10T22:59:12.004+08:00Kidney, Osmoregulation and Urine Formation<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">KIDNEY</span></b><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9r7nk0PuGYM/T_wOEGMWgkI/AAAAAAAAAO4/jIs2uwPc3l4/s1600/kid1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="209" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9r7nk0PuGYM/T_wOEGMWgkI/AAAAAAAAAO4/jIs2uwPc3l4/s320/kid1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-B1rqNBPc7O4/T_wOH3TfKcI/AAAAAAAAAPA/zKPQZLRuG4k/s1600/kid2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="216" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-B1rqNBPc7O4/T_wOH3TfKcI/AAAAAAAAAPA/zKPQZLRuG4k/s320/kid2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Each
kidneys contains approximately one to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">two million</span></b> tiny functional units (nephrons).<br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pQ1YQlbXQYQ/T_wOKuz9vWI/AAAAAAAAAPI/KORuemy4ywg/s1600/kid3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="210" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pQ1YQlbXQYQ/T_wOKuz9vWI/AAAAAAAAAPI/KORuemy4ywg/s400/kid3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Each
nephron consists of:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">Bowman’s capsule<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: #0070c0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #0070c0;">proximal convoluted
tubule<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #d99594; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">loop of Henle<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: #31849b; mso-themecolor: accent5; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #31849b; mso-themecolor: accent5; mso-themeshade: 191;">distal convoluted tubule <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #984806; mso-themecolor: accent6; mso-themeshade: 128;">collecting duct.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-phECpl153Jw/T_wOMOhS-MI/AAAAAAAAAPQ/nzgPpL49Bpc/s1600/kid4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="223" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-phECpl153Jw/T_wOMOhS-MI/AAAAAAAAAPQ/nzgPpL49Bpc/s400/kid4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Each
nephron tubule - is extensively surrounded by a <span style="color: red;">capillary network</span>.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Blood:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>enters kidney through <strong>renal artery</strong> <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>leaves through renal vein.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="color: red;"><strong>afferent</strong></span> arteriole carries blood <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>
<span style="color: red;">to</span> glomerulus <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="color: blue;"><strong>efferent</strong></span> arteriole carries blood <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">ß</span></span><span style="color: blue;">out</span>
of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>glomerulus.<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VCtAdvbMNmQ/T_wOO-9IbJI/AAAAAAAAAPY/iEWuaqgGJ9g/s1600/kid5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="220" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-VCtAdvbMNmQ/T_wOO-9IbJI/AAAAAAAAAPY/iEWuaqgGJ9g/s400/kid5.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>High
blood pressure (in glomerulus) forces blood plasma <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> into Bowson’s capsule
due to:<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"> à</span></span>
<span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">renal artery is </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">short + close</span></b><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;"> to aorta</span><span style="color: #0070c0;">.</span><o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"> à</span></span>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">diameter</span></b>
of the efferent arteriole is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">smaller than</span></b> afferent arteriole.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">URINE FORMATION<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><strong>Three</strong>
processes involved in the urine formation are:<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">ultrafilteration</span></b>,<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="color: #0070c0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">reabsorption <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">secretion.<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <span style="color: #38761d;"><strong> </strong></span></span></span><span style="color: #38761d;"><strong><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Ultrafilteration</span></strong>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>a process <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>blood plasma is forced out from the glomerulus <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>into the Bowman’s capsule <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>due to high hydrostatic pressure.<br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Glomerular
filtrate contains:<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="color: red;">ions</span>, <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="color: #0070c0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #0070c0;">water <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #943634; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">nutrients <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;">nitrogenous waste.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>Reabsorption</strong></span> of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: orange;">glucose</span> +<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="color: magenta;">amino acids</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>occurs at the proximal convoluted tubule<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>an active transport.<br />
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<span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>Reabsorption</strong></span> of
<strong><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">water</span></strong>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>occurs at descending limb of loop of Henle.<br />
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<span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>Secretion</strong></span> of
hydrogen ions (H<sup>+</sup>), creatinine, and toxic waste<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>occurs at distal convoluted tubule.<br />
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<span style="color: #7030a0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #7030a0;">Urea is <span style="color: red;"><strong>excreted</strong></span>,
while water, some urea and sodium ions (Na<sup>+</sup>) <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>reabsorbed at collecting duct.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>composition of urine =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>ions, urea, water, toxins + creatinine.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><o:p> </o:p><br />
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<span style="color: red;"><strong>OSMOREGULATION</strong></span><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Osmoreceptors
(in hypothalamus) - constantly monitor the amount of water in blood.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: red;">ADH</span>:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>released by the posterior lobe of pituitary<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>regulates the reabsorption of the water <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>by kidney.<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Uss1pX8Nbxk/T_wSoCiN7VI/AAAAAAAAAQc/Rw-dcviD99Q/s1600/kid16.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="178" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Uss1pX8Nbxk/T_wSoCiN7VI/AAAAAAAAAQc/Rw-dcviD99Q/s400/kid16.jpg" width="400" /></a><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">When osmotic pressure </span><span style="color: red;">(OP↑)</span><span style="color: #0070c0;"> in blood increase:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">ADH</span></b> is secreted<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>increases permeability of <span style="color: #00b050;">collecting duct</span> + <span style="color: #7030a0;">distal
tubule</span> <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">reabsorb</b>
more <span style="color: #548dd4;">water.</span> <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>Consequently, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">less more concentrated urine</b> is produces.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0070c0;">When osmotic pressure </span><span style="color: red;">(OP↓)</span><span style="color: #0070c0;"> decreases:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>adrenal cortex releases <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">aldosterone</span></b> (2<sup>nd</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>hormone)<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>stimulates <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">distal convoluted tubule</span></b> + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: #00b050;">collecting duct</span>
<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">reabsorb</b>
more <span style="color: red;">sodium ions (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Na<sup>+</sup></b>)</span>
<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>thru active transport, <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">increases
blood volume ↑</b>. <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>regulates blood concentration + volume.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">rennin-angiotensin
mechanism</span></b><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> trigger the release of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #c00000;">aldosterone.</span></b></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <strong> </strong></span></span><strong>Negative
feedback</strong> mechanism:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>a system <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>which brings an imbalance back to normal<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>by responding to a condition it controls.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Blood pH is maintained - between 7.35 to 7.45.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
- relative
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">exchange</b> of bicarbonate (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>)</span></b>
+ hydrogen ions (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">H<sup>+</sup></span></b><span style="color: blue;">)</span><br />
- between
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">blood + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>tubules</b> <br />
- help
adjust acid-base balance of blood.<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-41wG_Rb__Og/T_wyFSdgM_I/AAAAAAAAARo/3Xqb2Z9bfLI/s1600/kid20.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-41wG_Rb__Og/T_wyFSdgM_I/AAAAAAAAARo/3Xqb2Z9bfLI/s400/kid20.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">When blood <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">pH</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">↓</b>
decreases:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">H<sup>+</sup></span></b> are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">secreted</b> into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">distal tubule</span></b> <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>while <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></span></b> are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">reabsorbed</b>, <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>resulting in blood pH returning to normal.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">When blood <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">pH</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">↑</b>
increases:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></span></b> will be <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">removed</b> <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>from blood <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0;">distal tubule</span>.</b>
<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;"> -<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>few <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">H<sup>+</sup></span></b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> move into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">blood capillary</b>.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">Urine pH vary
between 4.5 - <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>8.2</span></b> (normal pH =
6.0).<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dymXsmuaEfmhoI8VqquuJ1xX2q7HnzCtsA4ahyOABXHuJsHPztjwIG6L1XhIDsYaR-Vv5BltLtI55Vy2q374w' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><br />
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<img height="79" src="http://www.blogger.com/video-thumbnail.g?contentId=1ab8c2be18c66e17&zx=2r5vpzsd85ef" style="filter: alpha(opacity=30); left: 317px; opacity: 0.3; position: absolute; top: 8418px;" width="96" />Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-63893175752732800772012-07-09T00:23:00.004+08:002012-07-09T00:27:02.740+08:00LIVER II<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Cori cycle</span></b>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>
involves <span style="color: #c0504d;">liver</span> + <span style="color: #00b050;">skeletal
muscle</span>.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>During
strenuous exercise:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #ffc000;">glucose</span> (in
muscle cells)<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>converted to <span style="color: red;">lactate </span>(produces<span style="color: red;"> </span><span style="color: #548dd4;">2ATP)</span><o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>transported to <span style="color: #c0504d;">liver
</span>(by blood stream) to be metabolized.<o:p></o:p><br />
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>In
liver:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: red;">lactate</span> is
oxidized to <span style="color: #b2a1c7;">pyruvate</span> <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>then to <span style="color: #ffc000;">glucose</span>
(using <span style="color: #548dd4;">ATP</span>).<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>transported back to the <span style="color: #00b050;">muscle</span>
(via bloodstream).<o:p></o:p><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YtRgw2Oo9Gs/T_mz6arXl9I/AAAAAAAAAOk/EIBHxpTdg8Q/s1600/cori.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="160" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-YtRgw2Oo9Gs/T_mz6arXl9I/AAAAAAAAAOk/EIBHxpTdg8Q/s400/cori.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Ornithine cycle</span></b>
(in mitochondria):<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>produces <span style="color: #00b0f0;">amino group</span>
(NH<sub>3</sub>)<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">deamination</span></b> process<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #548dd4;">NH<sub>3</sub></span></b> +<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #e36c0a;">CO<sub>2</sub></span></b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">carbamoyl
phosphate</span></b>.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">carbamoyl phosphate</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">+</b> <span style="color: red;">ornithine</span> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #b2a1c7;">citruline</span></b> (amino acid).<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span>2<sup>nd</sup> amino group (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #e36c0a;">aspartate</span></b>) <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span>
enters the ornithine cycle.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #b2a1c7;">citruline</span></b>
is converted back by a multistep reaction to ornithine <br />
(with the formation of
urea).<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">è<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">ornithine</span></b>
+ <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #00b050;">carbarmoyl
phosphate</span></b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> repeat the cycle<o:p></o:p><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-iEy1PZHZA3w/T_mz7SrjGNI/AAAAAAAAAOs/DgsO10T4tVY/s1600/ornitine.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="172" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-iEy1PZHZA3w/T_mz7SrjGNI/AAAAAAAAAOs/DgsO10T4tVY/s400/ornitine.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-15647392126404866032012-07-06T18:17:00.004+08:002012-07-09T00:58:40.206+08:00LIVER I<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RIDbtYumzSQ/T_mtxwtFCQI/AAAAAAAAAOA/LMuBmFtoS3U/s1600/liver1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RIDbtYumzSQ/T_mtxwtFCQI/AAAAAAAAAOA/LMuBmFtoS3U/s320/liver1.jpg" width="280" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9w0K38BCHYs/T_muLDaZIZI/AAAAAAAAAOI/OgBtvDzZPyY/s1600/liver2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-9w0K38BCHYs/T_muLDaZIZI/AAAAAAAAAOI/OgBtvDzZPyY/s320/liver2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Liver
- made up of thousands of <span style="color: red;">lobules</span>.<br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Y_9lUF-dH-k/T_muMTtQCFI/AAAAAAAAAOQ/q4Pwbeg-w0A/s1600/liver3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Y_9lUF-dH-k/T_muMTtQCFI/AAAAAAAAAOQ/q4Pwbeg-w0A/s200/liver3.jpg" width="185" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Each
lobule - consists of rows of liver cells (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">hepatocytes</span></b>).<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">Sinusoids</span></b>: <o:p></o:p><br />
- channels where blood flows <o:p></o:p><br />
- from the hepatic artery <o:p></o:p><br />
- into the hepatic vein.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">Hepatic vein</span></b>:<o:p></o:p><br />
- carries deoxygenated blood + nutrients
<o:p></o:p><br />
- to the heart.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">Hepatic portal vein</span></b>:<o:p></o:p><br />
- carries blood-containing
nutrients <o:p></o:p><br />
- from intestine <o:p></o:p><br />
- into lobules.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: blue;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Canalicluli</b>:</span> <o:p></o:p><br />
- where bile secreted by the liver
cells flows <o:p></o:p><br />
- into bile duct.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rGxpQDIS_Zc/T_muNhQ4mMI/AAAAAAAAAOY/F6TxkJU-gTc/s1600/liver4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="217" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-rGxpQDIS_Zc/T_muNhQ4mMI/AAAAAAAAAOY/F6TxkJU-gTc/s400/liver4.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Liver
performs many important functions, all of which contribute to homeostasis</span>:<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">i.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="color: red;">Carbohydrate + protein metabolism<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ii.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>site
of <span style="color: blue;">synthesis of lipid</span> (from excess glucose).<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">iii.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <span style="color: #b45f06;"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #b45f06;">detoxification</span>
- where drugs, toxins and poisons <br />
(taken in the diet/produced by bacteria) <br />
biochemically broken down + rendered harmless.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">iv.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: #8e7cc3;">production
of bile</span> + plasma proteins, <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="color: #a64d79;">storage
site of ions</span>, minerals + vitamins<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">vi.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> <span style="color: #e06666;"> </span></span></span><span style="color: #e06666;">generation
of heat</span> <br />
<br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>In
the liver: glucose is oxidized <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> to CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O.<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>In
the liver cells (stimulated by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">insulin</span></b>) <br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> excess <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">glucose</span></b>
is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">converted</b> to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">glycogen</span></b> (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">glycogenesis</b>), <o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>When the
levels of blood glucose drop<br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">glycogen</span></b> is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">converted</b>
to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">glucose</span></b>
(presence of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">glycagon</span></b>).<o:p></o:p><br />
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>When <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">glycogen </span></b><span style="color: blue;">↓</span> in the liver cells is depleted and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">glucose</span></b><span style="color: red;">↓</span> level fall <br />
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">glucose</span></b> is made from other <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: purple;">non-carbohydrate</span></b>
sources = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">gluconeogenesis</b>.<o:p></o:p>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-62693671792472623482012-03-08T13:02:00.005+08:002012-03-10T19:45:47.209+08:00U6ScBeta 2012 - rat dissection<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-P3OxZRmwK7w/T1pCaoeLuBI/AAAAAAAAAN4/gq5iagJd1xo/s1600/P4270617.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-P3OxZRmwK7w/T1pCaoeLuBI/AAAAAAAAAN4/gq5iagJd1xo/s320/P4270617.JPG" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></div> <br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Xapy_2-7vzg/T1g3qDXSuwI/AAAAAAAAALw/AiR1E8GXhCo/s1600/07032012596.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Xapy_2-7vzg/T1g3qDXSuwI/AAAAAAAAALw/AiR1E8GXhCo/s320/07032012596.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">One for me...one for you ...and one for.....</td></tr>
</tbody></table> <br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-mJUfHQTIKmo/T1g33pv6HEI/AAAAAAAAAL4/M2h2fRjJQ3o/s1600/07032012597.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-mJUfHQTIKmo/T1g33pv6HEI/AAAAAAAAAL4/M2h2fRjJQ3o/s320/07032012597.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Get set!...ready!... cuuuuuuuuut....!!!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-btlt1SOYYv0/T1g4NrUwFyI/AAAAAAAAAMA/yERcwHL-I58/s1600/07032012598.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-btlt1SOYYv0/T1g4NrUwFyI/AAAAAAAAAMA/yERcwHL-I58/s320/07032012598.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Give me...give me...please...please...please.......!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-e2WIaxwcJnk/T1g4gTVOTiI/AAAAAAAAAMI/hwRQbzzm8qQ/s1600/07032012602.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-e2WIaxwcJnk/T1g4gTVOTiI/AAAAAAAAAMI/hwRQbzzm8qQ/s320/07032012602.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">I told you....I'm going to skin you alive.....!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-q33k46nMDFc/T1g4sHYWdRI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/59U7MyGSLW8/s1600/07032012603.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-q33k46nMDFc/T1g4sHYWdRI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/59U7MyGSLW8/s320/07032012603.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">This is how you skin a RAT!!!!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Zab5f3rlU8c/T1g48svhn7I/AAAAAAAAAMY/_4OHzMb2mGA/s1600/07032012601.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Zab5f3rlU8c/T1g48svhn7I/AAAAAAAAAMY/_4OHzMb2mGA/s320/07032012601.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">I think the belly button... is around here.... somewhere......!!!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-75NDWOsow2w/T1g5NlNdhII/AAAAAAAAAMg/3OxSF34i9Nw/s1600/07032012600.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-75NDWOsow2w/T1g5NlNdhII/AAAAAAAAAMg/3OxSF34i9Nw/s320/07032012600.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hah!.....I've found it...the stolen chicken fat...!!!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nd8ViUMrOWs/T1g5bmh_AnI/AAAAAAAAAMo/mgMil6tnMHM/s1600/07032012604.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nd8ViUMrOWs/T1g5bmh_AnI/AAAAAAAAAMo/mgMil6tnMHM/s320/07032012604.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hey....where is the...?</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WchUNPFRJZU/T1g5p3UYGiI/AAAAAAAAAMw/_SN5n8jSdc0/s1600/07032012606.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WchUNPFRJZU/T1g5p3UYGiI/AAAAAAAAAMw/_SN5n8jSdc0/s320/07032012606.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Aiyah!!!.....this rat has babies in it...!!!!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xffpNsvyJVg/T1g5-z_PZmI/AAAAAAAAAM4/tbQG1lb4hrQ/s1600/07032012610.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xffpNsvyJVg/T1g5-z_PZmI/AAAAAAAAAM4/tbQG1lb4hrQ/s320/07032012610.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Display of rat digestive organs.</td></tr>
</tbody></table><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-K23qr9W_kic/T1hEIWzBcAI/AAAAAAAAANI/PCaOm-mzMR0/s1600/07032012629.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-K23qr9W_kic/T1hEIWzBcAI/AAAAAAAAANI/PCaOm-mzMR0/s320/07032012629.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ouch!!!..you've broke my heart...</td></tr>
</tbody></table><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KP0YyrHcOWQ/T1hFTUH_-LI/AAAAAAAAANo/IFY-UKqhQJE/s1600/07032012633.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KP0YyrHcOWQ/T1hFTUH_-LI/AAAAAAAAANo/IFY-UKqhQJE/s320/07032012633.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bloody bleeding rat...!!!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HcPTTcC81lU/T1hEi2D2crI/AAAAAAAAANQ/YnVqrBL2eGU/s1600/07032012624.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HcPTTcC81lU/T1hEi2D2crI/AAAAAAAAANQ/YnVqrBL2eGU/s320/07032012624.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hey!....I've found something here...!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eDOmxKf5e0w/T1hE0rgXsSI/AAAAAAAAANY/QQb2j-ypM9E/s1600/07032012625.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eDOmxKf5e0w/T1hE0rgXsSI/AAAAAAAAANY/QQb2j-ypM9E/s320/07032012625.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sorry!...no peeping...it's a secret mission....!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-g2raQiIk-eE/T1hFFMyr4xI/AAAAAAAAANg/6o2vGmXqAxw/s1600/07032012627.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-g2raQiIk-eE/T1hFFMyr4xI/AAAAAAAAANg/6o2vGmXqAxw/s320/07032012627.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sob...sob...I thought I have to cut only....</td></tr>
</tbody></table> <br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-J1PHkzGOJ3c/T1g6QAQtXxI/AAAAAAAAANA/XDV_Vfy7W1E/s1600/07032012611.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-J1PHkzGOJ3c/T1g6QAQtXxI/AAAAAAAAANA/XDV_Vfy7W1E/s320/07032012611.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Xb6XAF3D17Q/T1hFjn2QNWI/AAAAAAAAANw/9tDS896iMYY/s1600/07032012628.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Xb6XAF3D17Q/T1hFjn2QNWI/AAAAAAAAANw/9tDS896iMYY/s320/07032012628.jpg" width="320px" yda="true" /></a></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-17030606080362042582012-03-06T12:34:00.006+08:002012-03-09T23:59:37.140+08:00U6scZeta 2012 - Rat Dissection<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;">2012<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-cEur7BBKzsQ/T1WOd_CjA4I/AAAAAAAAAKU/zF0bBmySelg/s1600/06032012561.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-cEur7BBKzsQ/T1WOd_CjA4I/AAAAAAAAAKU/zF0bBmySelg/s320/06032012561.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Here kitty kitty... here kitty kitty... nice kitty...!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CjwnigBz3cc/T1WOsuQJYKI/AAAAAAAAAKc/NQPMONFhxps/s1600/06032012562.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CjwnigBz3cc/T1WOsuQJYKI/AAAAAAAAAKc/NQPMONFhxps/s320/06032012562.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Here....take it ...make sure it's properly cooked!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-0v5DEuTZrq8/T1WPM2ngelI/AAAAAAAAAKk/pZgrUwDz6Ws/s1600/06032012566.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-0v5DEuTZrq8/T1WPM2ngelI/AAAAAAAAAKk/pZgrUwDz6Ws/s320/06032012566.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Here you are....this is a big one... specially kept.. for U!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-SAFBXeqgJy4/T1WPZlX0CvI/AAAAAAAAAKs/fZKYm0rQSug/s1600/06032012570.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-SAFBXeqgJy4/T1WPZlX0CvI/AAAAAAAAAKs/fZKYm0rQSug/s320/06032012570.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Like this....massage here...and a little bit there...that's the way!</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KlRvQs9tcVo/T1WPkXb3SGI/AAAAAAAAAK0/CAYiJJpYjOo/s1600/06032012572.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KlRvQs9tcVo/T1WPkXb3SGI/AAAAAAAAAK0/CAYiJJpYjOo/s320/06032012572.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Help!!!.. I'm stuck!!!...</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TCFFnMOntlA/T1WP1GBGrlI/AAAAAAAAAK8/gJuCXDMpB_Y/s1600/06032012579.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TCFFnMOntlA/T1WP1GBGrlI/AAAAAAAAAK8/gJuCXDMpB_Y/s320/06032012579.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yes...snip snip here....and... snip snip there....!</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-euzQXsQ3UNs/T1WP-yEu9yI/AAAAAAAAALE/U4U1QMwfXxg/s1600/06032012581.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-euzQXsQ3UNs/T1WP-yEu9yI/AAAAAAAAALE/U4U1QMwfXxg/s320/06032012581.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Oh no... not there! It's tickling there.....haha..hoho..haha....</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qjSfe40WViY/T1WQJdKffZI/AAAAAAAAALM/-6e5tWLiCRQ/s1600/06032012585.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qjSfe40WViY/T1WQJdKffZI/AAAAAAAAALM/-6e5tWLiCRQ/s320/06032012585.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Help!...I've been violated!!!!</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hUQ5TPv9fOg/T1WQW6pU0SI/AAAAAAAAALU/9ZD_lu_599c/s1600/06032012582.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hUQ5TPv9fOg/T1WQW6pU0SI/AAAAAAAAALU/9ZD_lu_599c/s320/06032012582.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bevy of maidens with their presentations on... rat dissection!</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kAdcW6nvw_A/T1WSr4bK2JI/AAAAAAAAALg/Vl5MLYN7fYM/s1600/060320121487.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kAdcW6nvw_A/T1WSr4bK2JI/AAAAAAAAALg/Vl5MLYN7fYM/s320/060320121487.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sorry!.. you have been exposed........</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TQOnWKDCEVY/T1WS9mQJmHI/AAAAAAAAALo/aHyeAFpNfYE/s1600/060320121486.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240px" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TQOnWKDCEVY/T1WS9mQJmHI/AAAAAAAAALo/aHyeAFpNfYE/s320/060320121486.jpg" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Now... I know... the rubbish inside you.....!</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-58087205855856723382011-11-06T21:55:00.005+08:002011-11-08T10:48:44.866+08:00Homeostasis ll<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>The pancreas</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- functions as <span style="color: red;"><strong>exocrine</strong></span> + <strong>e<span style="color: blue;">ndocrine</span></strong> gland.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- has 2 groups of cell in the pancreas.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- α & β-cells in the islet of Langerhans play (major role in blood glucose concdntration).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- <span style="color: magenta;"><strong>α-cells</strong></span> - secrete <span style="color: magenta;"><strong>glucagons</strong></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- <span style="color: lime;"><strong>β-cells</strong></span> - secrete <span style="color: lime;"><strong>insulin </strong></span>into blood capillaries.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-EaC-fnKpqX4/TraU12GqYhI/AAAAAAAAAJo/G5sdGT0aUog/s1600/pancreas.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="140px" ida="true" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-EaC-fnKpqX4/TraU12GqYhI/AAAAAAAAAJo/G5sdGT0aUog/s320/pancreas.bmp" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>α & β-cells in the islet of Langerhans</strong></span></td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Blood glucose level rises↑<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> due to carbohydrate breakdown.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Insulin + glucagons have opposite effects.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Insulin</b>:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>secreted by β-cells (when <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">glucose</span></b><span style="color: red;">↑</span> level increases).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>target organs = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">liver</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: magenta;">muscle tissues</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>convert <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">glucose</span></b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">glycogen.</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Glucagon</b>:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>secreted by α-cells (when the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">glucose</span></b><span style="color: red;">↓</span> level decreases)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Target organ = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">liver</span></b> cells.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>convert <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">glycogen</span></b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">glucose.</span></b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-y0Ugp-tZvUM/TraU5EWK_uI/AAAAAAAAAJw/uZyLK9j1dFE/s1600/glucose+level.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="308px" ida="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-y0Ugp-tZvUM/TraU5EWK_uI/AAAAAAAAAJw/uZyLK9j1dFE/s320/glucose+level.bmp" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Pancreas response to different level of glucose</span></strong></td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Ingestion of glucose <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> increase insulin level ↑.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>2 types of diabetes: Type I & Type II.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-UMLx6V-y0kE/TraWYxT8p8I/AAAAAAAAAJ4/89-TsTtqrLE/s1600/clucose+level+2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200px" ida="true" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-UMLx6V-y0kE/TraWYxT8p8I/AAAAAAAAAJ4/89-TsTtqrLE/s320/clucose+level+2.bmp" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><strong><span style="color: blue;">Blood glucose & insulin level in normal & diabetic person</span>.</strong></td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Formation of tissues fluid is a physical process.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>At <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">arteriol end: </span></b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">smaller<span style="color: red;"> blood plasma</span></b> content is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">forced out</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>when hydrostatic pressure (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">HP</span></b>) <span style="color: red;">></span> osmotic pressure (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">OP</span></b>).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>At <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">venous end:</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">tissue fluid</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">re-enters</span></b> capillary</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>when osmotic pressure (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">OP</span></b>) <span style="color: red;">></span> hydrostatic pressure (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">HP</span></b>).<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Em1hbsz4mmI/TraWeNnZvnI/AAAAAAAAAKA/iYsR8fGtcK8/s1600/OP.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="161px" ida="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Em1hbsz4mmI/TraWeNnZvnI/AAAAAAAAAKA/iYsR8fGtcK8/s320/OP.bmp" width="320px" /></a></div></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-5933929480687165882011-10-24T01:45:00.014+08:002011-10-27T00:26:59.548+08:00Homeostasis<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Homeostasis</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- <span style="color: red;">maintenance of internal environment within cells</span> (tissue fluid + blood plasma).<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-US946hh8pgk/TqRXHKM_ENI/AAAAAAAAAIo/0dVNYQSJTAw/s1600/tissue+fluid.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="120px" rda="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-US946hh8pgk/TqRXHKM_ENI/AAAAAAAAAIo/0dVNYQSJTAw/s200/tissue+fluid.bmp" width="200px" /></a></div><br />
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- has 3 functional components: <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">receptor</span>, <span style="color: green;">control centre</span> + <span style="color: red;">effector</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in;">- 2 types of mechanism:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">Negative</span></b> feedback.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Positive</span></b> feedback.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>2 types of animals (that respond to the fluctuations in temperature): <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">endotherms</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">ectotherms</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><strong>Ectotherms</strong></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-oxaxyNy1kZI/TqRX11q7_JI/AAAAAAAAAJA/ekZwxvFNIAc/s1600/endotherms.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="216px" rda="true" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-oxaxyNy1kZI/TqRX11q7_JI/AAAAAAAAAJA/ekZwxvFNIAc/s320/endotherms.bmp" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">Endotherms</span></b></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table> <br />
<div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"> </div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"> </div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"> </div> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"> <br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>To maintain a stable body temperature <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> organism needs to balance <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">heat gain</span></b> with <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">heat loss</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Heat gained/lost thru:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="color: purple;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: purple;">conduction, </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="color: purple;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: purple;">convection</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="color: purple;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: purple;">radiation, </span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: purple;">evaporation</span></b> (heat lost only).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">Ectotherms</span></b> - exhibit <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">behavioural</span></b> thermoregulation.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Endotherms</span></b> - show <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">physiological</span></b> + <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">behavioural</span></b> thermoregulation</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Internal body temperature <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> sends impulses to hypothalamus (via blood vessels + afferent nerves respectively).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>In thermoregulation:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">receptors</span></b> (thermoreceptors) = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">nerves</span></b> beneath the skin,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">control centre</span></b> = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">hypothalamus</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">effectors</span></b> = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">sweat glands + blood capillaries</span></b> (beneath skin).</div><img height="96px" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nXL3K300RK8/TqRXxM1FX1I/AAAAAAAAAI4/egwsOkVDVGg/s200/ectotherms.bmp" style="filter: alpha(opacity=30); left: 515px; mozopacity: 0.3; opacity: 0.3; position: absolute; top: 650px; visibility: hidden;" width="72px" /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4fFMdFP7sWc/TqXlRfygzdI/AAAAAAAAAJg/CNXOI88k7T8/s1600/endotherms2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="225px" ida="true" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4fFMdFP7sWc/TqXlRfygzdI/AAAAAAAAAJg/CNXOI88k7T8/s320/endotherms2.bmp" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>Endotherms</strong> show <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">physiological</b> and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">behavioural</b> thermoregulation</span></td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YG8p3dCX3bc/TqXlOo5yUmI/AAAAAAAAAJY/rY_EcA71Wsk/s1600/ectotherms2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="166px" ida="true" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-YG8p3dCX3bc/TqXlOo5yUmI/AAAAAAAAAJY/rY_EcA71Wsk/s320/ectotherms2.bmp" width="320px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;"><strong>Ectotherms</strong> exhibit <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">behavioural</b> thermoregulation</span></td></tr>
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<div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-31250023743468744012011-10-05T01:06:00.017+08:002011-10-10T21:57:29.656+08:00Translocation in Plants<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="color: red;"><strong>(A) Mass-Flow/Pressure Flow Hypothesis:</strong></span></span><br />
<div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><br />
</div><div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"> <span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>The mass-flow/pressure flow hypothesis:</div></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>postulates that dissolved <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">sugar moves</span></b> in phloem </div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>by mean of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">pressure gradient</span></b> </div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>which exists between the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">source</span> </b>and<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: red;">sink</span></b><span style="color: red;">.</span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>The photosynthetic cells in:</div> - <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">leaves </span></b>= common <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">source of sugars</span></b> <br />
- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">roots</span></b> = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">sinks</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #003366;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #003366;">At the leaves</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; tab-stops: list 27.0pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">- sucrose</span></b> is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">active</b>ly transported </div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">mesophyll cells</span></b> </div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>to <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: olive;">companion cell</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>into <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #339966;">sieve tube</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">against</span></b> its concentration gradient</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>process = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">phloem loading</span></b><span style="color: red;">.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">high conc</span></b><span style="color: green;"> of sucrose</span><span style="color: red;">↑</span> <span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ascii-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span></span> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">lowers</span></b><span style="color: green;"> cell <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">water potential</b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> (Ψ<sub>w</sub>)</b><span style="color: red;">↓.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water</span> </b>- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">drawn <span style="color: green;">into sieve tube</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">from</b> nearby <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">xylem vessel</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>creating a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">high hydrostatic pressure</span></b> (<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">HP</b>)<span style="color: red;">↑ </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">forces the <span style="color: teal;">bulk/mass flow</span></b> of the phloem sap </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>towards the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #003300;">sink</span>.</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_d2OacBsdoI/Tos9x-uSCgI/AAAAAAAAAIQ/C5_CWw6Uxzs/s1600/mass-flow.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="210px" kca="true" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_d2OacBsdoI/Tos9x-uSCgI/AAAAAAAAAIQ/C5_CWw6Uxzs/s400/mass-flow.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Phloem loading and unloading of sucrose</td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">At the root:</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">sucrose</span></b> is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">actively transported</b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>from the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">sieve tube</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>into the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff9900;">companion cell</span> </b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>into a root cell. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>process = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">phloem unloading</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> <span style="color: red;"><strong>L</strong></span></span></span><span style="color: red;"><strong>oading</strong></span><span style="color: red;"> </span>(at the source) and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">unloading</span></b> of sugar (at the sink) </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <span style="color: red;">- <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">require energy</b></span> derived from ATP.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"></div><div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">(B) In Electro-Osmosis Mechanism:</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><ul><li>potential diff develops across sieve plate</li>
<li>by companion cell (actively transport <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #3366ff;">K<sup>+</sup> into </span><span style="color: blue;">sieve tube</span></b>).</li>
<li>K<sup>+</sup> accumulate at one end of sieve plate </li>
<li>creates a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993366;">potential diff</span></b> between sieve plate.</li>
<li>caused K<sup>+</sup> speed <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">across</span></b><span style="color: #ff6600;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">sieve plate</b></span></li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #3366ff;">water + dissolved sucrose</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">follow</span></b> (attracted by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">+ve</b> charge).</li>
<li><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #3366ff;">water</span></b> in phloem moves by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #3366ff;">osmosis</span></b> </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">as accumulation of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">K<sup>+</sup></span></b><span style="color: #ff6600;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">lower Ψ<sub>w</sub></b></span> in sieve tube (compared to next cell).</li>
</ul></div><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2q8u1iVoyKc/TpLjfcEf6mI/AAAAAAAAAIU/DfbcBPEMcCM/s1600/electro-osmosis.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="312px" kca="true" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2q8u1iVoyKc/TpLjfcEf6mI/AAAAAAAAAIU/DfbcBPEMcCM/s400/electro-osmosis.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">K<sup>+</sup> accumulate at one end of sieve plate creates a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993366;">potential diff</span></b> between sieve plate</td></tr>
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</div><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">(C) In Cytoplasmic Streaming Mechanism:</span></b><br />
<ul><li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">water + dissolved compounds (in phloem sap) </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">move + circulate</span><span style="color: teal;"> together </span></b></li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">one</span><span style="color: teal;"> direction</span></b> (in sieve tube)</li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">it’s slow + depends on metabolic energy/due to their kinetic energy.</li>
<li>circulation <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">slow down</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">at sieve plate</span></b> </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">forced out</span></b> from cytoplasmicc streaming (thru pores) </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">to</span></b> cytoplasmic streaming of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">next</span><span style="color: teal;"> sieve tube</span></b>.</li>
</ul> <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eVr3hEfuKpg/TpLkp5b3ohI/AAAAAAAAAIg/5ub_U3a1kWw/s1600/cytoplasmic+streaming.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="252px" kca="true" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-eVr3hEfuKpg/TpLkp5b3ohI/AAAAAAAAAIg/5ub_U3a1kWw/s400/cytoplasmic+streaming.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Circulation <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">slow down</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: teal;">at sieve plate</span></b> </td></tr>
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</div><div style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">(D) In Peristaltic Wave Mechanism</span><span style="color: #993300;">:</span></b></div></div><ul><li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">sieve tube</b> is filled with <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">fine cytoplasmic filaments</span></b></li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">continuous</span></b> from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">sieve tube</b> to the next </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">thru pores</span></b> of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">sieve plate</b>.</li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">contain phloem sap tube <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">constrict + relax alternately</span></b> </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">pushing sap</span></b> from one sieve tube to the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">next.</b></li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">constriction + relaxation/peristaltic movement form a pattern of wave = peristaltic wave</li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">can be at <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">diff speed + in opposite</span></b> direction (in sieve tube) </li>
<li style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none;">depends on metabolic energy/ATP.</li>
</ul><img height="75px" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2q8u1iVoyKc/TpLjfcEf6mI/AAAAAAAAAIU/DfbcBPEMcCM/s320/electro-osmosis.bmp" style="filter: alpha(opacity=30); left: 243px; mozopacity: 0.3; opacity: 0.3; position: absolute; top: 1233px; visibility: hidden;" width="96px" /> <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QxdWfqZIRRI/TpLksQ-yh7I/AAAAAAAAAIk/vI3g5tZUoJo/s1600/peristaltic+wave.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="233px" kca="true" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QxdWfqZIRRI/TpLksQ-yh7I/AAAAAAAAAIk/vI3g5tZUoJo/s400/peristaltic+wave.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Phloem sap tube <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: maroon;">constrict + relax alternately</span></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table> <br />
<div class="separator" style="border-bottom: medium none; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; clear: both; text-align: center;"></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-56033642446287121542011-09-18T11:07:00.001+08:002011-09-18T11:09:23.658+08:00Macromolecules across the plasma membrane<a href="http://www.slideshare.net/contactmeasif/transport-of-macromolecules-across-cellmembrane">http://www.slideshare.net/contactmeasif/transport-of-macromolecules-across-cellmembrane</a>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7101736685892823372.post-1464677349703427382011-09-12T02:37:00.008+08:002011-09-15T00:46:27.910+08:00Transport of Water: Mechanism<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>Two theories to explain <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water</span> + <span style="color: #993366;">minerals</span></b> transport in plants</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="color: green;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">root pressure theory</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">cohesion-tension theory</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">Root-pressure theory</span></b>:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">accumulation</b> of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">mineral ions</span></b> in the xylem </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">enhances</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water</span></b> molecules to move <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">into root</span></b><span style="color: #993300;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">hairs</b></span> (by osmosis).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">water pressure</span></b> ↑ builds up in the root </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>pressure <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">pushes up</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water</span></b> + <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dissolved <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">minerals</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">through</b> the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">xlem</span> </b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">toward </b>the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">top</span></b> of the plant.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>but <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">not</span></b> strong enough to push up water to the top of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">tall trees</span></b><span style="color: #993300;">.</span> <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Root pressure</td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>In small plants:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>root pressure can build high enough </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>to force water and minerals completely out of the tips of the leaves </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>the process = <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">guttation</span></b>. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #ff6600;">Cohesion-tension theory</span></b> suggests that:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water</span></b> inside the xylem is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">pulled upward</b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>by the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">-ve pressure</span></b> (or tension) </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>that extends all the way <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">from</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">leaves</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">to</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">roots</span></b>.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">In the leaf xylem</b>:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">-ve pressure</span></b> (tension) builds </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">as water evaporates</span></b> during transpiration.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>evaporated water is continually replaced </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>thus <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">cohesive</span></b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">bond</span></b> pull the string of water molecules up </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>to create a <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">transpiration</span></b> pull.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>transpiration pull is <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">relayed</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>molecule by molecule</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>down the entire column of water in the xylem.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-osa-cYpFMcE/Tm9lvJD0HZI/AAAAAAAAAIA/al2YmyZ3wHI/s1600/transpiration+pull.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="163px" rba="true" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-osa-cYpFMcE/Tm9lvJD0HZI/AAAAAAAAAIA/al2YmyZ3wHI/s400/transpiration+pull.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Transpirational pull in the leaf</td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">In the stem</span></b>, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">water</span></b> molecules:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>exist as a long <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">unbroken chain</span></b> in the xylem.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">pulled upwards</b> by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">tensions</span></b> produced (during transpiration).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>are <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">held</b> by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #993300;">cohesion + adhesion</span></b> forces<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gJJUNNfHtKo/Tm9lzR7FncI/AAAAAAAAAIE/-lxO2NM7-Oc/s1600/transpiration+pull+-+2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="167px" rba="true" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gJJUNNfHtKo/Tm9lzR7FncI/AAAAAAAAAIE/-lxO2NM7-Oc/s400/transpiration+pull+-+2.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cohesion and adhesion forces in the xylem</td></tr>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Transpiration pull</b>:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>can extend down to the roots </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>only through an unbroken chain of water molecules.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">At the cellular level:</b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>the gradients of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water potential</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">drive</b> the osmostic movement of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">water</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>from <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">cell to cell</span></b> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 27.0pt; text-indent: -9pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span>within the roots up <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue;">to the leaves</span></b>.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-erMu95vMlZg/TnDZwzTHW8I/AAAAAAAAAIM/ga1Wy2uA6QM/s1600/water+potential+gradient.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; cssfloat: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="252px" rba="true" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-erMu95vMlZg/TnDZwzTHW8I/AAAAAAAAAIM/ga1Wy2uA6QM/s400/water+potential+gradient.bmp" width="400px" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Water potential in leaf, stem and root</td></tr>
</tbody></table></div>Pouliswhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15895088969258493752noreply@blogger.com0